|
Документ взят из кэша поисковой машины. Адрес
оригинального документа
: http://herba.msu.ru/shipunov/school/biol_330/2013_2014/prguide/index.htm
Дата изменения: Mon Apr 28 02:54:03 2014 Дата индексирования: Mon Apr 11 04:19:15 2016 Кодировка: ISO8859-5 Поисковые слова: dust disk |
Biology 330 class report from the March 2014 trip
Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, is a territory of the United States, located in the north-eastern Caribbean east of the Dominican Republic and west of the US Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands. Due to its location, Puerto Rico enjoys a tropical climate and is subject to beautiful weather year round. Originally populated for centuries by the aboriginal people known as TaУ-no, the island was claimed by Christopher Columbus for Spain during his second voyage to the Americas on November 19, 1493. In 1898, Spain ceded the archipelago to the United States as a result of its defeat in the Spanish-American War under the terms of the Treaty of Paris.
The island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called «La Cordillera Central» (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1,339 meters (4,393 ft), is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1,077 m (3,533 ft).
El Yunque National Forest is the sole tropical rain forest in the U.S. National Forest System. The forest is a relatively small 28,000 acre size. It differs significantly from all the other U.S. National Forests because of its year-round tropical climate and immense biodiversity.The rugged Luquillo Mountains that rise to 3,533 ft. above sea level comprise most of the forest land. Their steep slopes can sometimes receive rainfall of over 200 inches per year at higher elevations. Caressed by gentle easterly winds the forest has an average temperature of 73ТА F (21ТА C), and seasonal changes are almost imperceptible. It is the ideal climate for tropical vegetation. The rainforest is noted for its biodiversity; it is «home» to thousands of native plants including 150 fern species, 240 tree species (88 of these are endemic or rare and 23 are exclusively found in this forest). The El Yunque National Forest has no large wildlife species, but hundreds of smaller animals abound in this gentle forest, many of which exist nowhere else on the planet.
Each year the park welcomes about 600,000 visitors from all over the world who come to sample the rainforest's eco-tourism pleasures while developing a greater understanding of its ecological importance by walking the many beautiful trails.
The Humacao Nature Reserve is located on the south-eastern coast of the island of Puerto Rico. With over 3000 acres, located in the municipality of Humacao, this fantastic nature reserve offers beach, mangroves, swamps, marshes, channels, and an interconnected lagoon system great for kayaking, birding, fishing, and crabbing.
What adds to the diversity and makes the Humacao Reserve one of the more unique nature reserves in Puerto Rico is the fact that the landscape consists of forests, lagoons, beaches and a coconut plantation. There is also a sugarcane plantation that was closed down in 1970 and a World War II Roosevelt Roads Naval base bunker. As well as a turtle population that frequents the beaches of the reserve. It is also known for its diverse and spectacular collection of approximately ninety bird species that have made their homes in this protected area.
Guanica Dry Forest:
Guanica is a subtropical dry forest on the southwest side of Puerto Rico. It is considered the best preserved subtropical forest and best example of a dry forest in the Caribbean. The forest covers 9,000 acres, has rolling hills, open plains, and ends in the Guanica Bay. In 1919 it was designated as a reserve and in 1981 became a United Nations Biosphere Reserve. The forest occurs in the rain shadow caused by the Cordillera Central. The Cordillera Central is a mountain range that crosses the island from west to east. Guanica is Puerto Rico's driest area with temperatures ranging from 80 Fahrenheit in the shade to 100 in exposed areas. The average rainfall is only 791 millimeters.
Out of the sixteen species of birds that are endemic to Puerto Rico, nine can be find in Guanica. Some of these species include the Puerto Rican woodpecker, Puerto Rican lizard cuckoo, the critically endangered Puerto Rican nightjar, and the Puerto Rican emerald hummingbird. There are also reptiles and amphibians including the Coqui tree frog, numerous other small endemic frogs, and various lizards including some species of Anoles.
The vegetation can be divided into three main groups, upland deciduous, semi-evergreen, and the scrub forest. In the lower scrub forest there is exposed limestone and different species of cacti can be found. In the semi-evergreen zone the tallest trees are found including the Guayacan tree. In the upland deciduous zone Exostema caribaeum can be found with unique flowers with slender white tubular petals. Out of the 700 plant species found in the forest 48 are endangered, and 16 are endemic to Guanica. A common attraction to the forest is a Guayacan tree, Lignum vitae, believed to be over 400 years old.
The insular shelf of La Parguera, on the southwest coast of Puerto Rico, is characterized by an extensive development of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangrove forests. The dry, warm, and relatively stable climate, low wave energy, high water transparency, relatively wide shelf, oligotrophic offshore waters, and low urban coastal development are some of the factors that contribute to the conditions of the marine ecosystem of La Parguera. Interactions among coral reef, sea grass, and mangrove communities provide for a highly productive, structurally complex, and biologically diverse ecosystem.
Coral reefs act as barriers to wave action and permit the establishment of sea grasses and fringing mangroves. In turn, sea grasses and mangroves contribute organic matter for coral nutrition and serve as important foraging and nursery habitats for coral reef fishes and other organisms. Also, a new discovery of thriving coral reefs off the coast of Puerto Rico has been found. Scuba diving scientists discovered sprawling and diverse coral reefs at 100 to 500 feet (30 to 150 meters) below the ocean surface within a 12-mile (19-kilometer) span off the southwestern coast near La Parguera, Puerto Rico.
La Parguera is a small fishing village in the town of Lajas, Puerto Rico; located on the southwest coast of the island La Parguera is one of four areas in Puerto Rico that has a very unique and remarkable night time phenomenon, a Phosphorescent Bay. The Bioluminescent Bay is actually made up of two bays, Bahia Monsio Jose and Bahia la Parguera; when the still waters are disturbed they glow with millions of microscopic organisms known as dinoflagellates. This unique bay contains up to 720,000 single-celled bioluminescent dinoflagellates per gallon of water. This phenomenon occurs only in tropical areas, typically in mangrove-protected bays such as the one found at La Parguera. Puerto Rico is the only place on the planet that has three sites where you can depend on this phenomenon to occur every night, La Parguera being one of them. Nature is unpredictable and there are plenty of factors that affect Bio Bay's performance -- anything from moon phase to weather and tides.
The Botanical and Cultural Garden William Miranda Marin is located nearby major cities in the island of Puerto Rico -just 30 minutes away from San Juan, the Capital City. The Garden promotes a lot more than respect for nature: it is also an exponent of the country's history. Sugar cane production and commerce are inseparable elements of the Caribbean's evolution during the last centuries. In the Garden figure as witnesses the centenary ruins of the ancient San Jose Sugar Plantation, as well as the rebuilt old large hut to house slaves, whose sacrifice represented an important element in the development of the creole personality. As a complement, in the Garden, there are important archeological deposits of the Taino Indians that inhabited BorikУ?n, the aborigines' name of Puerto Rico, pieces that date from pre-Columbus until the Spaniard colonization times. The Garden exhibits a rich multicultural wealth conforming the creole heritage of all cagУМeУБos and Puerto Ricans. Combining in its own texture the Tainos, Negroes and Spaniards fibers, the Garden celebrates creolism, the sum of three races, in several of its educational zones.The Garden exhibits tropical flora in all its exuberance and variety. At the same time is home to the wildlife proper to such vegetation.
Cecropia
«Pumpwood, Yarumo or Guarumo»
A fast growing, dioecious tree easily identified by large, palmate, 7-10 deeply lobed leaves. With the exception of some species, a typical height is between 5-15 m. Inflorescences are in green, spike-like clusters containing seeds with a gelatinous-coating. Fruits provide food for various bats, birds and other animals, who in turn spread seeds throughout the forest. These seeds will remain dormant until the right combination of sunlight and temperature initiates growth. The internodes are generally hollow,and are home to ants. This Azteca genus forms a mutualistic relationship with the tree, protecting it from foreign insects and encroaching plants. In turn, Cecropia provides shelter and food in the form of 1-2 mm, white, Mullerian bodies rich in glycogen.
It is a pioneering species, being one of the first plants to colonize disturbed or freshly cleared areas. Distribution is mainly fixed to Neotropical, humid rainforests in the Central and South Americas, plus surrounding islands like Puerto Rico. However, it has been found in such places as French Polynesia, Malaysia, and Singapore.
Bambusa
«Bamboo»
A quick growing grass of the tropics, parts of Asia, and some of Africa. From deep (~ 3 m) underground rhizomes, arise clusters of woody, hollow stems. The stem walls are very hard, containing silica in addition to dense cells composed of cellulose and lignin. Upper nodes of the plant support alternating branches with lanceolate leaves. Plant height ranges from 10-15cm in the smallest species, and up to 40 m in the largest species. All bamboos in a groove will flower at the same time. Inflorescences are arranged in a green panicle which develops at the stem tips. Sheathlike bracts enclose the flower-bearing spikelets. After wind pollination a one-seeded grain / caryopsis forms, then the plant dies. Bamboo is commonly used in the tropics as firewood, building material, pipes, plates, medicine, and instruments (flutes).
Palmae
«Palm tree»
Palms form a large, monocot family composed of shrubs and trees. This family's distribution ranges from the tropics to such areas as Africa, Florida, California, and Georgia.They are the result of an evolutionary «attempt to make a tree from a grass». Lacking secondary tissues, it was more favorable to create a thick stem and secondary roots to support the plant's weight. Many palm «trunks» are covered with dense, stiff fibers. These fibers are composed into spines at the end. Leaf arrangement is either pinnately or palmately compound. White, unisexual, individual inflorescences are enclosed within a spathe (sheathing bracts) that becomes woody when mature. The fruit, generally a drupe, consists of a fleshy ring surrounding a seed. Several uses for the palm include oils, ropes, food, and wood.
Rubiaceae
«Madder, Bedstraw, or Coffee Family»
This family consists of several herbs, trees and shrubs mainly located in the tropics. A typical stem structure involves leaves oppositely arranged and perpendicular to each other. The edge of the leaf is usually entire. Stipules are located interpetiolar. Bisexual flowers contain 4-5 of the following: stamens, corolla lobes, and calyx lobes. Inflorescences can be in a cymose position.The pistil is composed of 2 carpels. Fruit takes on many forms, such as drupes, berries, nutlets. Secondary compounds (i.e., caffeine) in the fruit protect the plant from various animals and insects. Products of Rubiaceae family include the antimalarial compound quinine, coffee, and a red dye (from Rubia tinctorum). Cephalanthus, Houstonia and Gardenia are several species that may be cultivated as ornamental plants.
Pandanus
«Screw Pine»
The screw pine belongs to a monocot genus similar in appearance to palms. Spiral leaf scar patterns are the reason or the name. They are found by marshy areas or near a coast in such places as Madagascar, Hawaii, Japan, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, and the Malay Archipelago. A unique feature involves extra support root «legs» that begin at the stem and end in the soil. Having the support allows for the tree to grow up to a height of approximately 20 m. The leaves are arranged in densely alternating ranks of three at the end of the stem. Spines along the lanceolate leaf margins and midrib make the leaves very sharp. This dioecious tree has completely different male and female flowers. Male flowers are relatively simple, only containing spikes roughly 4 inches long. Female inflorescences appear as large spathe globe, containing many different sections similar to a pineapple. Later the fruit's color changes from green to yellow as it matures. Some plants are assumed to be pollinated by the wind, however, there are some species that emit an odor. It could be a mechanism to allow flowers to be pollinated by animals and insects as well. Ropes and fabric are commonly made from the leaves, while other parts are used for building materials.
Hibiscus
«Hibiscus»
Hibiscus belong to the family Malvaceae. Their distribution ranges from tropical to warm-temperate regions.The genus is known to contain woody shrubs, small trees and a multitude of flowering plants. Leaves are lobed or toothed, organized in an alternating pattern along the stem, and contain veins that spread from the leaf base. Stipules grow beneath the leaves. The shape ranges from lanceolate to ovate. Flower color includes red, orange, purple, yellow, white or pink. Inflorescences are radially symmetrical with 5 sepals (separate or fused), 5 petals, and pollen-bearing / ovule-bearing parts. Each style is branched as many times as there are carpels. The fruit consists of a five-lobed capsule, which splits at maturity. As the flowers are considered beautiful, Hibiscus plants are mainly grown for ornamental purposes.
Clusia
«Autograph Tree, Pitch Apple, Florida Clusia, Signature Tree»
Writting on the tree leaves, by means of a fingernail or other semi sharp material, will remain until the leaf is shed. Hence the plant was given the common name of «Autograph Tree». Shrubs, vines, and small to medium trees compose the Clusia genus. Some species begin life as epiphytes that eventually kill their host. A full grown tree may be 20 m tall. Leaf margins are entire. The dark green leaves are thick, leathery and oval-shaped. Flowers come in a variety of colors, from white to greenish-white, red, yellow or pink. Inflorescences are typically arranged in a terminal/ lateral panicle and bloom for only a short time.After pollination several green, poisonous, seed capsules form. Inside the fruit are several red/orange seeds. When the fruit turns black and splits open, these seeds will be surrounded with a black material. Common ranges of this genus are in the tropical and subtropical Americas. The most interesting thing about the genus is its ability to switch between C3 and C4 photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is used immediately in C3 photosynthetic reactions. However, C4 photosynthetic reactions store CO2 within the plant to be used at a later time with a higher temperature.
Piper
«Pepper plant»
The trees and shrubs that belong to this genus are commonly found in the lowland tropical rain forests. The fruit consists of a small, round and aromatic peppercorn when ripe. Besides being used as a cooking spice, several species are grown for ornamental purposes. Pepper also seems to have disinfectant properties and a few antibiotic properties.
Ficus
«Fig Tree»
Ficus will mainly be found in the tropics and occasionally semi-warm temperate zones. The fig covers a wide variety of plant forms such as vines, shrubs, epiphytes and trees. A unique feature of the fig tree (either the Puerto Rican Ficus elastica or Ficus retusa) is the aerial roots hanging from the treetop. These roots absorb excess moisture in the air to help transport water throughout the plant. Fruit requires a symbiotic relationship with a fig wasp to germinate. Figs are enjoyed in a variety of recipes, from Fig newtons to homemade desserts.
Spathodea
Spathodea is a monotypic genus in the flowering plant family Bignoniaceae. The single species it contains, Spathodea campanulata, is commonly known as the Fountain Tree, African Tulip Tree, Pichkari or Nandi Flame. The tree grows between 7-25 m (23-82 ft) tall and is native to tropical dry forests of Africa.
Acanthaceace
Most species in this family are grown for ornamental purposes because they often contain beautiful spiked, cyme, or raceme inflorescences. This family is a major group of angiosperms with 250 genera and roughly 2,500 species. Mostly found in tropical regions, members of this family thrive in nearly every habitat such as sea coasts, forests, swamps, and mangrove woods.
Mangifera
«Mango tree»
Belongs to the cashew family Anacardiaceae, this genus has a very well-known member, the mango. Out of the roughly 69 species, more than 27 bear edible fruit. The diversity of these trees range from subtropical and tropical regions of South East Asia and they are widely cultivated there, however, these trees are typically canopy trees in lowland forests. Mangifera trees grow between 30-40 m in length.
Rhytidophyllum
This genus is part of the Gesneriaceae family, and is native to Caribbean islands and northern South America. This family consists mostly of epiphytes with a portion being shrub/trees. Some of the trees contain beautiful green, bell-shaped flowers.
Thespesia
«Caribbean tulip tree»
Relatives to the hibiscus family, this genus contain roughly 18 shrubs/trees. Many of these trees have pink/red flowers which bloom all year around and are pollinated by hummingbirds. These trees are native to the Caribbean, Asia, Africa, and the South Pacific.
Picramnia
«Pepper tree»
This genus is hard to place in phylogeny, but is considered to be in the family of Picramniaceae. These trees are native to Brazil and other tropical regions.
Cocos
«Coconut tree, Coconut palm»
Cocos is a genus of trees belonging to the family Arecaceae. The term «coco» is derived from a Spanish/Portuguese word meaning «head» or «skull». The fruit of these trees, coconuts, have been thought to look like heads. The rough, hairy material covering the outside of coconuts is known as «copra». Cocos trees are wind pollinated and are native to tropical and subtropical regions.
Terminalia
Terminalia is a genus of plants belonging to the family Combretaceae. These plants are very common and can adapt almost anywhere. With nearly 100 species, many plants in this genus are very useful for reasons such as antifungal, antibacterial, anticancer, and aromatic properties. These plants are native to tropical regions.
Laguncularia
«White mangrove»
Laguncularia is a genus of flowering plants in the leadwood tree family, Combretaceae. These plants are native to the Caribbean, Mexico, and Bermuda. They can grow between 12-18m tall.
Coccoloba
Coccoloba is a genus in the family Polygonaceae, related to buckwheat. It is common to see these plants on sea coasts across America, often functioning as place holders for the sand. There are approximately 120- 150 species belonging to this genus, and they are native to tropical and subtropical regions of America, South America, Caribbean, and Central America.
Chrysobalanus
«Caribbean apple»
As the common name implies, this genus is native to the Caribbean. Members of this genus are evergreen perennial shrubs and small trees that attain a maximum height of 25-30 ft. Trees in this genus may contain small white flowers before giving way to apple like fruit.
Lophosorium and Dicranopteris ferns
There are multiple families of ferns, and most come from the tropics and some have made it to North Dakota. They are very frequently found in Puerto Rico. Dicranopteris is a big group of tropical ferns, and are very common. They have leaves that are stem-like and can grow to be many meters long.
Younger leaves, before they mature, are in a spiral and later flatten out (see picture above). The roots on these ferns may have their roots planted further away than the leaves are as they grow towards the sunlight.
Typically on ferns there will be small brown bumps on the underside of the leaves (as shown in the picture above) and these are the sporangia (also called sori). These sporangia will immediately move to the sexual stage. These sporangia are wind dispersed and are microscopic in size.
Nepholepis
Boston Fern
The Boston Fern, also known as the sword fern, is tolerant to high sunlight and heat. This fern is a popular house plant as the sword-shaped fronds grow upwards and gracefully arch. They can grow to be several meters tall and wide. These plants prefer higher humidity and the leaves will begin to brown if there is not enough humidity and will shed its fronds if there is not enough water in the soil.
Hymenophyllaceae
Filmy fern
There are about 7 genera and approximately 600 species of this plant. They are found in tropical climates around the world and only a few have ventured to the more temperate regions. The filmy ferns have filmy, transparent leaves and are sometimes mistaken for mosses and liverworts. They only live in the wet forest in Puerto Rico as they need high humidity and precipitation to thrive. The filmy fern is a more primitive plant, and was an attempt «to make a moss out of a fern.»
Sphagnum
Peat Moss
Peat Moss grows in areas of low nutrients with almost no nitrogen content, but has a good water source. Peat moss has been used to treat wounds and burns as it has an antibacterial use. Also if needed, the water that is in peat moss can be consumed safely. Depending on the species of peat moss, they can hold 16-26 times their dry weight of water. Peat moss can help form an environment for other plants such as ericaceous shrubs along with orchids and carnivorous plants.
Lycopodium
Spike Moss
Spike moss is a vascular plant that is its own group. They are a flowerless, vascular, terrestrial, and epiphytic group that have wide-branched, upright stems. They are also an asexually reproducing plant that reproduce with sporangia; they are distributed by rhizomes that can be found above or below ground. They came before the reptiles during the Carboniferous time. They have small spiny leaves which appear needle-like but have a soft texture to the touch. This plant is good for ornamental purposes. The plant has also been used medicinally in a tea and as a compress as treatments for skin disorders. Much like the club moss, the spores can also harvested for lycopodium powder which is used as a flash powder and is used in many different areas: fireworks, pill coatings, fingerprint powders, and even ice cream stabilizer.
Huperzia
A relative of spike moss that is most commonly called a firmoss. They are referred to as a fir moss because of their appearance being similar to that of a fir tree.They have dichotomously-branched stems and grow in clusters. Each leaf of Huperzia contains a sporangium and as a plant needs a lot of humidity.
Selaginella
Club Moss
Club Moss is similar to spike moss, but they have leaves of different sizes. They are a shade plant and like high humidity. The spores of club moss used to be collected to help stop nosebleeds and other hemorrhaging as they are very absorbent. They also were used in pyrotechnics and photography as the spores are flammable and produce a bright flash when lit. Club mosses also were plants that helped produce a lot of the coal that we now mine as they were buried, compressed and then carbonized.
Hepaticae
Liverworts
Liverworts may be the first lineage of plants. They arega very simple plant and also primitive. They have a flat body which is called a thallus and have symbiotes; Blue-green algae and cyanobacteria help to improve their photosynthesis. The plants themselves are typically small being 2-20 mm wide and often less than 10 cm long. They can be found globally but are more prominent in high humidity areas, but have arctic and desert species as well. In ancient times it was thought that liverworts helped cure diseases related to the liver, this in turn helped it gain its name. Today there is little use for them, but they help reduce the amount of erosion in riverbeds.
Arthrostylidium
Common name: Climbing Bamboo
Climbing bamboo species are distributed in the New World from Mesoamerica to South America and in the Caribbean. Climbing bamboo vines are herbs, growing in clumps. They are perennial, with pachymorph and sympodial rhizomes. Aerial stems(culms) are cylindrical, lignified, hollow, and elongated. Leaves of the culm differ from those of the branches; branches have foliage leaves or food producing organs and culm leaves have a sheath to protect new culms. Inflorescences are spike like and unbranched, flowering along the axis. Climbing bamboos have one or two bracts. Arthrostylidium belongs to the family Poaceae commonly called «grasses» or true grasses. Climbing bamboos are unique in that the vine life form is not common to their family of grasses. The vine life form may be an ancestral form of the grass family.
Allamanda
Common name: Yellow Bell or Golden Trumpet
Allamanda are native to the Americas; they are distributed from Mexico to Argentina. Plants of this genus are evergreen trees, shrubs, or vines. Some species are ornamental plants cultivated for their large, colorful flowers. Most species produce yellow flowers. They contain a white latex. The leaves are opposite or arranged in whorls of up to five. The blades are usually oval and smooth-edged, but some are leathery or lightly hairy. The inflorescence is a compound cyme. The flower has five lobed sepals and a bell or funnel shaped corolla of five petals. Allamanda cathartica is notable for its medicinal properties although all parts of the plant contain allamandin, a toxic iridoid lactone. The leaves, roots and flowers are used as a laxative and emetic in traditional medicine in a number of tropical countries. Although the milky sap is known to contain antibacterial and possibly anticancer properties, it is poisonous and ingesting large amounts can be toxic.
Mimosa
Common name: Four Valve Mimosa or Sensitive Plant
Mimosa plants are capable of rapid movement. The leaves of the plant close quickly when touched. Some mimosas raise their leaves in day and lower them at night. Leaves are alternate and bipinnate. Mimosa flowers are bisexual and have ten or fewer stamens produced in heads. What appears to be a single globular flower is actually a cluster of many individual ones. Mimosa contains some level of heptanoic acid. One of the notable species is Mimosa pudica, which folds its leaves when touched or exposed to heat. It is native to southern Central and South America, but is widely cultivated elsewhere as a houseplant and outdoors in the tropics. Outdoor cultivation has led to weedy invasion.
Marcgravia
Common name: Marcgravia
Marcgravia are native to the Caribbean Islands, Central America, and South America. Plants of this genus are terrestrial, woody, hemi-epiphytic or epiphytic vines or shrubs. Leaves are alternate and simple with dark glandular dots in the blade or the margin. Young