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Annals of Physics 334 (2013) 1­23

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Annals of Physics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aop

Fractional power-law spatial dispersion in electrodynamics
Vasily E. Tarasov
a b

a,b,

, Juan J. Trujillo

b

Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia Departamento de AnÀlisis MatemÀtico, Universidad de La Laguna, 38271 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

highlights
· Plasma-like non-local media with power-law spatial dispersion. · Fractional differential equations for electric fields in the media. · The generalizations of Coulomb's law and Debye's screening for the media.

article

info

abstract
Electric fields in non-local media with power-law spatial dispersion are discussed. Equations involving a fractional Laplacian in the Riesz form that describe the electric fields in such nonlocal media are studied. The generalizations of Coulomb's law and Debye's screening for power-law non-local media are characterized. We consider simple models with anomalous behavior of plasma-like media with power-law spatial dispersions. The suggested fractional differential models for these plasma-like media are discussed to describe non-local properties of power-law type. Crown Copyright © 2013 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 1 March 2013 Accepted 25 March 2013 Available online 30 March 2013 Keywords: Spatial dispersion Electrodynamics Fractional spacial model Fractional Laplacian Riesz potential

1. Introduction Fractional calculus is dedicated to study the integrals and derivatives of any arbitrary real (or complex) order. It has a long history from 1695 [1,2]. The first book dedicated specifically to study the theory of fractional integrals and derivatives and their applications, is the book by Oldham and Spanier [3] published in 1974. There exists a remarkably comprehensive encyclopedic-type

Corresponding author at: Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia. Tel.: +7 499 939 5989; fax: +7 499 939 0397. E-mail addresses: tarasov@theory.sinp.msu.ru (V.E. Tarasov), jtrujill@ullmat.es (J.J. Trujillo).
0003-4916/$ ­ see front matter Crown Copyright © 2013 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aop.2013.03.014


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monograph by Samko, Kilbas and Marichev [4]. Many other publications including different fractional models had appeared from 1980. For example, see [5­22]. Fractional calculus and the theory of integro-differential equations of non-integer orders are powerful tools to describe the dynamics of anomalous systems and processes with power-law non-locality, long-range memory and/or fractal properties. Spatial dispersion is called the dependence of the tensor of the absolute permittivity of the medium on the wave vector [23­25]. This dependence leads to a number of phenomena, such as the rotation of the plane of polarization, anisotropy of cubic crystals and other [26­37]. The spatial dispersion is caused by non-local connection between the electric induction D and the electric field E. Vector D at any point r of the medium is not uniquely defined by the values of E at this point. It also depends on the values of E at neighboring points r , located near the point r. Plasma-like medium is medium in which the presence of free charge carriers, creating as they move in the medium, electric and magnetic fields, which significantly distorts the external field and the effect on the motion of the charges themselves [23­25]. The term ``plasma-like media'' refers to media with high spatial dispersion. These media are ionized gas, metals and semiconductors, molecular crystals and colloidal electrolytes. The term ``plasma-like media'' was introduced in 1961, by Viktor P. Silin and Henri A. Rukhadze in the book ``The electromagnetic properties of the plasma and plasmalike media'' [23]. In Section 2 the basic concepts and well-known equations of electrodynamics of continuous media are considered to fix the notation. In Section 3, we consider power-law type generalizations of Debye's permittivity and generalizations of the correspondent equations for electrostatic potential by involving the fractional generalization of the Laplacian. The simplest power-law forms of the longitudinal permittivity and correspondent equations for the electrostatic potential are suggested. The power-law type deformation of Debye's screening and Coulomb's law are discussed. These suggested simple models allows us to demonstrate new possible types of an anomalous behavior of media with fractional power-law type of non-locality. In Section 4 the description of weak spatial dispersions of power-law type in the plasma-like media is discussed. The fractional generalizations of the Taylor series are used for this description. The correspondent power-law deformation of Debye's screening and Coulomb's law are considered. A short conclusion is given in Section 5. In Appendix A, we suggest a short introduction to the Riesz fractional derivatives and integrals. In Appendix B, the fractional Taylor formulas of different types are described. 2. Spatial dispersion in linear electrodynamics In this section we review some basic concepts and well-known equations of electrodynamics of continuous media, to fix the notation. For details see [23­25]. The behavior of electric fields (E, D), magnetic fields (B, H), charge density , and current density j is described by the well-known Maxwell's equations div D(t , r) = (t , r), curl E(t , r) = - div B(t , r) = 0, curl H(t , r) = j(t , r) + (1) (2) (3)

B(t , r) , t

D(t , r) . (4) t The densities (t , r) and j(t , r) describe an external source of field. We assume that the external sources of electromagnetic field are given. The vector E(t , r) is the electric field strength and the vector D(t , r) is the electric displacement field. In free space, the electric displacement field is equivalent to flux density. The field B(t , r) is the magnetic induction and the vector H(t , r) is the magnetic field
strength. In the case of the linear electrodynamics the constitutive equations (material equations) are linear relations. For electromagnetic fields which are changed slowly in the space­time, we have the


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constitutive equations (material equations) in the well-known form Di (t , r) = ij Ej (t , r), Bi (t , r) = µij Hj (t , r), (5) (6)

where ij and µij are second-rank tensors. For fields varying in space rapidly, we should consider the influence of the field at remote points r on the electromagnetic properties of the medium at a given point r. The field at a given point r of the medium will be determined not only the value of the field at this point, but the field in the areas of environment, where the influence of the field is transferred. For example, it can be caused by the transport processes in the medium. Therefore, we should use non-local space relations instead of Eqs. (5), (6). These non-local relations take into account space dispersion. For linear electrodynamics we have the following relation between electric fields E and D given by Di (t , r) = and Bi (t , r) =


R3

ij (r, r ) Ej (t , r ) dr , ^

(7)


R3

µij (r, r ) Hj (t , r ) dr . ^

(8)

If the medium is not limited in space and homogeneous, then the kernel of the integral operator is a function of the position difference r - r , Di (t , r) =


R3

ij (r - r ) Ej (t , r ) dr . ^

(9)

F

-1

In this case we can use the Fourier transform. The direct and inverse Fourier transforms F and , for suitable functions, are given by

(F f )(k) = F [f (r)](k) = ^ g (r) = (F
-1


R3

e-i(kr) f (r) d3 r, 1

(10)

g )(r) = F

-1

[g (k)](r) =


R
3

(2 )3

e+i(kr) g (k) d3 k.

(11)

We does not use the hat for D(t , r) and E(t , r) to have usual notation. From the context, it will be easy to understand if the field is considered in the space­time of its the Fourier transforms. Then electric field will be represented as a set of plane monochromatic waves, for which space­time dependence are defined by the function exp{ikr - it }. Therefore, relation (9) has the form Di (, k) = ij (k)Ej (, k). The function ij (k) is called the tensor of the absolute permittivity of the material: (12)

ij (k) =


R
3

e-

ikr

ij (r) dr . ^

(13)

Even for an isotropic linear medium, the dependence of the tensor ij (k) of the wave vector k preserves tensor form [23­25]. In this case we have

ij (k) = ij -



ki kj



|k|

2

(|k|) +

ki kj

|k|2

(|k|),

(14)

where (|k|) ­ the transverse permittivity, and (|k|) ­ the longitudinal permittivity.


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The Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic fields have the well-known form [23­25] i(k, E(, k)) (k) = (, k), (15) (16) (17) (18)

[k, E(, k)] = B(, k), (k, B(, k)) = 0,
i

µ(k)

[k, B(, k)] = -i (k) E(, k) + j(, k).

In these equations we have neglected the frequency dispersion. This can be done when the inhomogeneous field can be approximately regarded as static. In the case of a static external field sources in the environment can create a inhomogeneous electric field E(t , r) = E(r). The electric field in the medium is given by E(r) = -grad (r), (19)

where (r) is a scalar potential of electric field. Relation (19), applying the Fourier transform, can be written by E(k) = -ik k . Therefore, substituting (20) into (15), we obtain (20)

|k|2 (|k|) k = k ,

(21)

where k = (0, k). Note that Eq. (21) does not depend of the transverse permittivity (|k|). When the field source in the medium is the resting point charge, then the charge density is described by delta-distribution

(r) = Q (3) (r).

(22)

Therefore the electrostatic potential of the point charge in the isotropic medium, according to the Eq. (21), has the form

(r) =

Q


3

(2 )

e+ik(r)
R3

1

|k| (|k|)
2

d3 k,

(23)

where (r) is the electric potential created by a point charge Q at a distance |r| from the charge. Let us note the well-known case [23­25] is such that (|k|) = 0 , where the constant 0 is the vacuum permittivity (0 8.854 10-12 F m-1 ). Substituting (|k|) = 0 into (21), we obtain

|k|2 k =

1



k .

(24)

0

The inverse Fourier transform of (24) gives

(r) = -

1



(r),

(25)

0

where = 2 / x2 + 2 / y2 + 2 / z 2 is the 3-dimensional Laplacian, and

^ F [ f (r)](k) = -|k|2 F [f (r)](k) = -|k|2 f (k),

(26)

^ where f (k) = F [f (r)](k). As a result, the electrostatic potential of the point charge (22) has Coulomb's form
(r) =
1 Q 4 0 |r|

.

(27)


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The second well-known case [23­25] is such that

(|k|) =
0

1+

1
2 rD |k| 2

.
(28)

Substituting (28) into (21), we obtain

|k|2 +

1 r
2 D


k =

1



k .

(29)

0

Then, using the inverse Fourier transform of (24), we get

(r) -

1
2 rD

(r) = -

1



(r).

(30)

0

As a result, we have the screened potential of the point charge (22) in Debye's form:

(r) =

1

Q


exp -

|r|
r
D

,
(31) potential differs from Coulomb's factor for Coulomb's law, where separation can occur. Therefore, influence of charges, and outside

4 0 |r|

where rD is Debye's radius of screening. It is easy to see that Debye's potential by factor CD (|r|) = exp(-|r|/rD ). Such factor is a decay the parameter rD defines the distance over which significant charge Debye's sphere is a region with Debye's radius rD , in which there is an of which charges are screened.

3. Fractional power-law of non-locality and generalized Debye's screening In this section, we consider power-law type generalizations of Debye's permittivity (28), and generalizations of the correspondent equations for electrostatic potential (r) of the form

(r) -

1
2 rD

(r) = -

1



(r)

(32)

0

by involving the fractional generalization of the Laplacian [38,39,4,5]. 3.1. Power-law generalizations In this section we consider the simplest power-law forms of the longitudinal permittivity (|k|) and correspondent equations for the electrostatic potential. The suggested simple models allows us to consider new possible types of an anomalous behavior of media with fractional power-law type of non-locality. We introduce some deformation of power-law type to well-known model of Debye's screening. The generalized model is described by the deformation of two terms in Eq. (28) for permittivity in the from

(|k|) =
0

|k|

-2

+

1
2 rD |k|2-

.
(33)

The parameter characterizes the deviation from Coulomb's law due to non-local properties of the medium. The parameter characterizes the deviation from Debye's screening due to non-integer power-law type of non-locality in the medium. Substituting (33) into (21), we obtain

|k| +

1 r
2 D

|k|


k =

1



k ,

(34)

0


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and using the inverse Fourier transform of (34), we have

((-)/2 )(r) +

1 r
2 D

((-) /2 )(r) =

1



(r),

(35)

0

where (-) /2 and (-) /2 are the Riesz fractional Laplacian, see, for instance, [38,39,4,5] and Appendix A. Note that r and rD are dimensionless variables. In order to describe the properties of two types of deviations separately, we consider the following special cases of the proposed model. (1) Fractional model of non-local deformation of Coulomb's law in the media with spatial dispersion defined by Eq. (33) with = 0, given by

(|k|) =
0

|k|

-2

+

1
2 rD |k| 2

.
(36)

Then Eq. (21) has the form

|k| +

1
2 rD


k =

1



k ,

(37)

0

and the equation for electrostatic potential is

((-)/2 )(r) +

1 r
2 D

(r) =

1



(r).

(38)

0

This model allows us to describe a possible deviation from Coulomb's law in the media with nonlocal properties defined by power-law type of spatial dispersion. (2) Fractional model of non-local deformation of Debye's screening in the media with spatial dispersion is defined by Eq. (33) with = 2, is given by

(|k|) =
0

1+

1
2 rD |k|2-

.
(39)

Eq. (21) with (39) lead to

|k|2 +

1
2 rD

|k| k =

1



k ,

(40)

0

and then the corresponding equation for generalized potential is given by

- (r) +

1 r
2 D

((-)

/2

)(r) =

1



(r),

(41)

0

which involve two different differential operators. Such model allows us to describe a possible deviation from Debye's screening by non-local properties of the plasma-like media with the generalized power-law type of spatial dispersion. The behavior of electrostatic potentials for fractional differential models described by Eqs. (38) and (41) will be consider in Section 3.3. To the mentioned model can be find a explicit solution in terms of a Green type function. Also we will describe analytic solutions of the fractional differential equations (35).


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3.2. General fractional power-law type of non-locality In the more general case, we can consider the following power-law form

(|k|) =
0

m j=1

aj |k|j -2 +

a


0 2

|k|

.

(42)

Substitution of (42) into (21), and using the inverse Fourier transform gives the fractional partial differential equation
m j =1

1 (r), aj ((-)j /2 )(r) + a0 (r) =



(43)

0

where m > · · · > 1 > 0, and aj R (1 j m) are constants. We apply the Fourier method to solve fractional Eq. (43), which is based on the relation

^ F [(-)/2 f (r)](k) = |k| f (k).
Applying the Fourier transform F to both sides of (43) and using (44), we have
-1

(44)

(F )(k) =

1



m j =1


aj |k|
j



+a

0

(F )(k).

(45)

0

The fractional analog of the Green function (see Section 5.5.1 in [5]) is given by G (r) = F
-1

-1 m j (r) = aj |k| + a0
j =1


R3

m j =1


aj |k|

j

-1

+a

0

e+i(k,r) d3 k,

(46)

where = (1 , . . . , m ). The following relation


e
R
n

i(k,r)

(2 )n/2 f (|k|) d k = |r|(n-2)/2
n


0



f () n/2 Jn/2-1 (|r|) d

(47)

holds (see Lemma 25.1 of [4]) for any suitable function f such that the integral in the right-hand side of (47) is convergent. Here J is the Bessel function of the first kind. As a result, the Fourier transform of a radial function is also a radial function. On the other hand, using (47), the Green function (46) can be represented (see Theorem 5.22 in [5]) in the form of the one-dimensional integral involving the Bessel function J1/2 of the first kind

|r|-1/2 G (r) = (2 )3/2


0





m j =1


aj ||
j

-1

+a

0

3/2 J1/2 (|r|) d,

(48)

where we use n = 3 and = (1 , . . . , m ). Note that


J1/2 (z ) =

2

z

sin(z ).

(49)

If m > 1 and Am = 0, A0 = 0, then Eq. (43) (see, for example, Section 5.5.1. pp. 341­344 in [5]) has a particular solution is given by (50). Such particular solution is represented in the form of the convolution of the functions G(r) and (r) as follow

(r) =

1


R
3



0

G (r - r ) (r ) d3 r ,

(50)

where the Green function G (z ) is given by (48).


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Therefore, we can consider the fractional partial differential equation (43) with a0 = 0 and a1 = 0, when m N, m 1, and also the case where 1 < 3, m > 1, m 1, a1 = 0, am = 0, m > · · · > 1 > 0, which is given by
m j=1

1 (r). aj ((-)j /2 )(r) =



(51)

0

The above equation has the following particular solution (see Theorem 5.23 in [5]), given by

(r) =
with

1


R3



0

G (r - r ) (r ) d3 r ,

(52)

|r|-1/2 G (r) = (2 )3/2


0





m j =1


aj ||
j

-1

3/2 J

1/2

(|r|) d.

(53)

These particular solutions allows us to describe electrostatic field in the plasma-like media with the spatial dispersion of power-law type. 3.3. Potentials for particular cases of non-integer power-law type non-locality In this section we will study the properties of electrostatic potentials for fractional differential models mentioned in Section 3.1. Here we consider particular solutions of the following fractional partial differential equation

((-)/2 )(r) + a ((-) /2 )(r) =

1



(r),

(54)

0

- where 1 < , 0 < < , < 3, and a = rD 2 . Note that r and rD are dimensionless. Eq. (54) is the fractional partial differential equation (51) with m = 1, and such equation has the following particular solution

(r) =

1


R3



0

G , (r - r ) (r ) d3 r ,

(55)

where the Green type function is given by G ,

|r|-1/2 (r) = (2 )3/2


0





|| + a ||

-

1

3/2 J1/2 (|r|) d.

(56)

Therefore, the electrostatic potential of the point charge (22) has form:

(r) =
with

1

Q

4 0 |r|

· C, (|r|),

(57)

C , (|r|) =

2


0





sin(|r|) d, || + a ||

(58)

where C , (|r|) describes the difference of Coulomb's potential. Now we will study three special cases: (1) = 2, > 1 and = 0; (2) = 2 and 0 < < 2; (3) = 2 and > 0.


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a

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

b

1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

1

2 x

3

4

5

0

1

2 x

3

4

5

c
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

d
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

0

1

2 x

3

4

5

1

2 x

3

4

5

- Fig. 1. Plots of Debye exponential factor CD (x) = exp(-x/rD ) with rD = 1 and the factors y = C ,0 (x) with a0 = rD 2 = 1 for the orders: (a) = 1.9, (b) = 1.6, (c) = 2.5, (d) = 2.8. Here x = |r| and we use 0 < x < 5.

3.3.1. Non-local deformation of Coulomb's law (the case = 0) Fractional model of non-local deformation of Coulomb's law in the media with spatial dispersion is defined by Eq. (54) with = 0, is given by

((-)

/2

)(r) +

1
2 rD

(r) =

1



(r),

(59)

0

- where > 1, and a0 = rD 2 > 0. Using (57) and (58), it is easy to see that the electrostatic potential (r) differs from Coulomb's potential by the factor

C ,0 (|r|) =

2


0





sin(|r|) d. || + a0

(60)

Note that Debye's potential differs from Coulomb's potential by the exponential factor CD (|r|) = exp(-|r|/rD ). In Fig. 1 we present plots of Debye exponential factor CD (|r|) = exp(-|r|/rD ) and generalized - factor C ,0 (|r|) for the different orders of 1.5 < < 3.0 and a0 = rD 2 = 1. Using (Section 2.12.1 No. 3. p. 169. in [40]), we obtain the asymptotic (|r| 0) in the form C ,0 (|r|) C ,0 (|r|) C ,0 (|r|) 22-

((3 - )/2) 1 , |r|2- ( /2) ((3 - )/2) -2 |r| , ( /2) a
1-3/ 0

(1 < < 2), (2 < < 3), ( > 3).

(61)

22-

(62) (63)

2 (3/ ) (1 - 3/ )

|r|,


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Note that asymptotic (61)­(62) for 1 < < 2 and 2 < < 3 does not depend on the parameter a0 . We point out that for = 2, using (Eq. (11) of Section 1.2. in the book [41]), we obtain Debye's exponents C2,0 (|r|) = CD (|r|). As a result, the electrostatic potential of the point charge in a media with this type of spatial dispersion will have the form

(r)

Q 4
0

22-



((3 - )/2) 1 |r|3- ( /2)



(1 < < 2, 2 < < 3)

(64)

on small distances |r| 1. In the case > 3, we have the constant value of the potential for |r| 1 given by

(r)

1

Q
eff

4 0 R

,

( > 3),

(65)

where Reff is an effective sphere radius that is equal to R
eff

=

a0 . 2 (3/ ) (1 - 3/ )

1-3/

(66)

Therefore, the electric field E is equal to zero at small distances |r| 1. It is well-known that the electric field inside a charged conducting sphere is zero, and that the potential remains constant at the value it reaches at the surface. Then the electric field of a point charge in the media with powerlaw of spatial dispersion with > 3 is analogous to the field inside a conducting charged sphere of the radius Reff , for small distances |r| 1. The study of the asymptotic behavior of C ,2 (|r|) for |r| is an open question, although we have evidences to can suggest, as a conjecture, that its asymptotic behavior follow a power-law type also. Also from the corresponding plots, we can observe that the C ,2 (|r|) decreases more slowly than Debye's exponent CD (|r|). It is easy to proof that C ,2 (|r|) has a maximum for the case 2 < < 3 and the maximum does not exists for 1 < < 2, while for the particular case = 2 it is well-known that it is the classical exponential Debye's screening. 3.3.2. Non-local deformation of Debye's screening (the case = 2) Fractional model of non-local deformation of Debye's screening in the media with spatial dispersion is described by Eq. (54) with = 2, given by

- (r) + a ((-)

/2

)(r) =

1



(r),

(67)

0

where 0 < < 2. The electrostatic potential of the point charge (22) has the following form

(r) =

1

Q

4 0 |r| 2

· C2, (|r|), sin(|r|) d ||2 + a ||

(68)

where the function C2, (|r|) =


0





(69)

where C2, (|r|) describes the difference of Coulomb's potential. In Fig. 2 we present some plots of Debye exponential factor CD (|r|) = exp(-|r|/rD ) and factor C2, (|r|) for different orders of 1.5 < < 2 and a = 1. Using (Eq. (1) of Section 2.3 in the book [41]), we obtain the following asymptotic behavior for C2, (|r|) with < 2, when |r| C2, (|r|) = 2


0





sin(|r|) 1 1 d A0 ( ) 2- + Ak ( ) (2- 2 + a |r| |r| k=1

)(k+1)

,

(70)


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a

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

b

1

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

1

2 x

3

4

5

1

2 x

3

4

5

c

1

d

1

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

1

2 x

3

4

5

1

2 x

3

4

5

Fig. 2. Plots of Debye exponential factor CD (x) = exp(-x/rD ) with rD = 1 and the factors y = C2, (x) with a = 1 for the orders: (a) = 1.9, (b) = 1.6, (c) = 1.1, (d) = 0.6. Here x = |r| and we use 0 < x < 5.

where A0 ( ) = 2

a



(2 - ) sin
2

,
2

(71)

Ak ( ) = -


0



a

k+1

z (2- )(k+1)-1 sin(z ) dz .

(72)



As a result, we have that generalized non-local properties deforms Debye's screening such that the exponential decay is replaced by the following generalized power-law C2, (|r|) A
0 2 -

|r|

(0 < < 2).

(73)

On the other hand, the electrostatic potential of the point charge in the media with this type of spatial dispersion is given by

|r|3- on the long distance |r| 1.
4
0

(r)

A0

·

Q

(0 < < 2)

(74)

3.3.3. Non-local deformation of Coulomb's law and Debye's screening (the case = 2 and > 0) The electrostatic potential for non-local fractional differential model that is described by includes two parameters ( , ), where > > 0. In such model non-local properties Coulomb's law and Debye's screening such that we have the following fractional power-law C , (|r|) 2 (2 - ) sin( /2)

together Eq. (54) deforms decay (75)

a

·

1



|r|2-



(|r| ),


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12 V.E. Tarasov, J.J. Trujillo / Annals of Physics 334 (2013) 1­23

for 0 < < 3 and > . Note that this asymptotic behavior |r| does not depend on the parameter . The field on the long distances is determined only by term with (-) /2 ( > ) that can be interpreted as a non-local deformation of Debye's (second) term in Eq. (32). The new type of behavior of the spatial-dispersion media with power-law non-locality is presented by power-law decreasing of the field at long distances instead of exponential decay. The asymptotic behavior C , (|r|) for |r| 0 is given by C , (|r|) C , (|r|) C , (|r|) 22- 1 ((3 - )/2) · 2 - , |r| ( /2)

(1 < < 2), (2 < < 3),

(76)

22-

((3 - )/2) · |r|-2 , ( /2)
2 sin(3 / )

(77) (78)

a

1-3/

· |r|,

( > 3),



where we use Euler's reflection formula for Gamma function. Note that the above asymptotic behavior does not depend on the parameter , and relations (76)­(77) does not depend on a . The field on the short distances is determined only by term with (-) /2 ( > ) that can be considered as a non-local deformation of Coulomb's (first) term in Eq. (32). On the other hand, it is remarkable that exist a maximum for the factor C , (|r|) in the case 0 < < 2 < . 4. Fractional weak spatial dispersion Here we introduce a generalization of well-known weak spatial dispersion for the power-law type of non-locality of the media [23­28]. 4.1. Weak spatial dispersion Let us give an short description of weak spatial dispersion in the plasma-like media (for details see, for instance, [23­25]). Spatial dispersion in electrodynamics is called to the dependence of the tensor of the absolute permittivity of the medium on the wave vector [23­25]. It is well-known that this dependence leads to a number of phenomena, for example the rotation of the plane of polarization, anisotropy of cubic crystals and other [26­37]. The spatial dispersion is caused by non-local connection between the electric induction D and the electric field E. Vector D at any point r of the medium is not uniquely defined by the values of E at this point. It also depends on the values of E at neighboring points r , located near the point r. Non-local connection between D and E can be understood on the basis of qualitative analysis of a simple model of the crystal. In this model the particles of the crystal lattice (atoms, molecules, ions) oscillate about their equilibrium positions and interact with each other. The equations of oscillations of the crystal lattice particles with the local (nearest-neighbor) interaction gives the partial differential equation of integer orders in the continuous limits [42,43]. Note that non-local (longrange) interactions in the crystal lattice in the continuous limit can give a fractional partial differential equations [42,43]. It was shown in [42,43] that the equations of oscillations of crystal lattice with longrange interaction are mapped into the continuum equation with the Riesz fractional derivative. The electric field of the light wave moves charges from their equilibrium positions at a given point r, which causes an additional shift of the charges in neighboring and more distant points r in some neighborhood. Therefore, the polarization of the medium, and hence the field D depend on the values of the electric fields E not only in a selected point, but also in its neighborhood. This applies not only to the crystals, but also to isotropic media consisting of asymmetric molecules and plasma-like media [23­25].


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The size of the area in which the kernel ij (r) of integral equation (12) is significantly determined ^ by the characteristic lengths of interaction R0 . For different media these lengths can vary widely. The size of the area of the mutual influence R0 are usually on the order of the lattice constant or the size of the molecules (for dielectric media). Wavelength of light is several orders larger than the size of this region, so for a region of size R0 value of the electromagnetic field of light wave does not change. By other words, in the dielectric media for optical wavelength usually holds kR0 R0 / 10-3 1. In such media the spatial dispersion is weak [23,24,26,37]. To analyze it is enough to know the dependence of the tensor ij (k) only for small values k and we can replace the function by the Taylor polynomial

ij (k) = ij + ijl kl +

ijlm kl km

+ ···.

(79)

Here we neglect the frequency dispersion, and so the tensors ij , ijl , ijlm do not depend on the frequency . The tensors in (79) are simplified for crystals with high symmetry [26]. For an isotropic linear medium, we can use

(|k|) = + |k| + |k|2 + · · · .

(80)

In order to explain the natural optical activity (for example, optical rotation, gyrotropy) is sufficient to consider the linear dependence on k in (79) and (80). For non-gyrotropic crystals it is necessary to take into account the terms quadratic in k. For power-like type of non-locality we should use fractional generalizations of the Taylor formula (see Appendix B).

4.2. Fractional Taylor series approach The weak spatial dispersion in the media with power-law type of non-locality cannot be describes by the usual Taylor approximation. The fractional Taylor series is very useful for approximating noninteger power-law functions [44]. To illustrate this point, we consider the non-linear power-law function

(|k|) = a |k| + a0 .

(81)

If we use the usual Taylor series for the function (81) then we have infinite series. For fractional Taylor formula of Caputo type (see Appendix B), we need the following known property of the fractional Caputo derivative C D (see, for instance, [5]) ak
C a

D (k - a) = k

( + 1) (k - a) ( - + 1)

-

,

(x > a, > 0, > 0)

(82)

where k = |k|. In particular, if = , then
C a

D (k - a) = k

( + 1),

( C D )n (k - a) = 0. ak

(83)

Therefore

(C D )(0) = ( + 1),
while, the higher order Caputo fractional derivatives of (|k|), given in (81), are all zero. Hence, the fractional Taylor series approximation of such function is exact. Note that the order of non-linearity of (|k|) is equal to the order of the Taylor series approximation.


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4.3. Weak spatial dispersion of power-law types We consider such properties of the media with weak spatial dispersion that is described by the non-integer power-law type of functions (|k|). The fractional differential model is used to describe a new possible type of behavior of complex media with power-law non-locality. The weak spatial dispersion (and the permittivity) will be called -type, if the function (|k|) satisfies the condition lim

|k|0

(|k|) - (0) = a , 0 |k|

(84)

where > 0 and 0 < |a | < . Here the constant 0 is the vacuum permittivity (0 8.854 10-12 F m-1 ). The weak spatial dispersion (the permittivity) will be called ( , )-type, if the function (|k|) satisfies the conditions (84) and lim

|k|0

(|k|) - (0) - a 0 |k| = a , 0 |k|

(85)

where > > 0 and 0 < |a | < . Note that these definitions are similar to definitions of non-local alpha-interactions between particles of crystal lattice (see Section 8.6 in [18] and [42,43]) that give continuous medium equations with fractional derivatives with respect to coordinates. For the weak spatial dispersion of the ( , )-type, the permittivity can be represented in the form

(|k|) = 0 ( + a |k| + a |k| ) + R
R , (|k|) = 0. |k|0 |k| lim

,

(|k|),

(86)

where = (0)/0 can be considered as the relative permittivity of material, and (87)

As a result, we can use the following approximation for weak spatial dispersion

(|k|)/0 + a |k| + a |k| .

(88)

If = 1 and = 2, we can use the usual Taylor formula. In this case we have the well-known case of the weak spatial dispersion [26­37]. In general, we should use a fractional generalization of the Taylor series (see Appendix B). If the orders of the fractional Taylor series approximation will be correlated with the type of weak spatial dispersion, then the fractional Taylor series approximation of (|k|) will be exact. In the general case, = , where 0 < - < 1, we can use the fractional Taylor formula in the Dzherbashyan­Nersesian form (see Appendix B). For the special cases = 2 , where < 1 and/or = + 1, we could use other kind of the fractional Taylor formulas. In the fractional cases new types of physical effects may exist. 4.4. Fractional differential equation for electrostatic potential We can consider a weak spatial dispersion of the power-law ( , )-type. Then substituting (88) into (21), we obtain



|k|2 + a |k|

+2

+ a |k|

+2



k =

1



k ,

(89)

0

where = (0)0 and > > 0. The inverse Fourier transform of (89) gives 1 a ((-)( +2)/2 )(r) + a ((-)( +2)/2 )(r) - (r) = (r).



(90)

0

This fractional differential equation describes a weak spatial dispersion of the ( , )-type.


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Eq. (90) has the following particular solution

(r) =

1


R3



0

G2, , (r - r ) (r ) d3 r ,

(91)

where G2, , is the Green function of the form G2, ,

|r|-1/2 (r) = (2 )3/2
1 Q


0





-1 3/2 J1/2 (|r|) d. a || +2 + a || +2 + ||2

(92)

Therefore, the electrostatic potential of the point charge (22) for this case is given by

(r) =

4 0 |r|

·C

2, ,

(|r|),

(93)

where 0 < < , and the function C2, , (|r|) = 2


0





a || +

2

sin(|r|) d + a || +2 + ||2

(94)

describes the difference between such generalized potential and Coulomb's potential. For the weak spatial dispersion of the -type, we have 1 a ((-)( +2)/2 )(r) - (r) = (r).



(95)

0

This equation is a special case of Eq. (90), where a = 0. Then, the electrostatic potential of the point charge has form

(r) =

1

Q

4 0 |r|

·C

2, ,0

(|r|),

(96)

where 0 < < , and C2, ,0 (|r|) = 2


0





sin(|r|) d. a || +2 + ||2

(97)

This case is described by the fractional differential model introduced in Section 3 for the case of the order of Riesz fractional derivative is + 2 > 2. To describe properties of electric field of the point charge in the media with weak spatial dispersion, we consider properties of the function C2, , (|r|) = 2


0





a || +

2

sin(|r|) d, + a ||+2 + ||2

(98)

where > . Using the values for the sine integral Si(x) for the infinite limit


0



sin(z ) z

=


2

,

(99)

and the equation for the integral transform (Section 2.3, Eq. (1) in [41]) of the form


0



z

-1

sin(z ) =

( ) sin




2



,

(-1 < < 1),

(100)

we obtain the asymptotic for the function C2, , (|r|) of the form C2, , (|r|) 2







1 a - 2 |r|

( ) sin


2

1 a - |r|

( ) sin




2



.

(101)


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Fig. 3. Plots of general asymptotic behaviors of the factor y = C , (x).

It allows us to obtain the asymptotic behavior of the electrostatic potential

(r)

Q

1 a Q

4 0 |r|

-

a Q 4
2 0

2 ( ) sin( /2)

1


1

|r|
+1

+1

-

2 ( ) sin( /2)
0

4 2



|r|

,

(102)

where 0 < < < 1. The parameter is interpreted as a relative permittivity of the media. It is well known that far from the electric dipole the electrostatic potential of its electric field decreases with distance |r|, as |r|-2 (see Section 40 in [45]), that is faster than the point charge potential ( (r) |r|-1 ). The first term in (102) describes the well-known Coulomb's field. The second and third terms in (102) look like changed dipole electrostatic field that for integer case ( = 1) has the from (r) = d cos /(4 0 |r|2 ), where d = |d|, and d is the (vector) dipole moment, and is an angle between the vectors d and r (see Section 40 in [45]). We can consider the effective values deff ( ) = 2 ( )a Q



2

,



eff

=


2

(1 - )

(103)

for non-integer values of . The second and third terms in Eq. (102) can be interpreted as a generalized dipole fields of power-law type with the non-integer orders and , and these terms are represented as

eff (r) = -

deff ( ) cos eff ( ) 4 0 |r

|+1

-

deff ( ) cos eff ( ) 4 0 |r| +
1

,

(104)

where 0 < < < 1. In Fig. 4 present some plots (see Fig. 3) of Coulomb's electrostatic potentials (|r|) = (1/4 0 )|r|-1 and the potential with factor C ,,2 (|r|) for different orders of 0 < < < 2, where a = a = = 1. From the plots (see Fig. 4) it is easy to see that far from the point charge in the media with weak spatial dispersion the electrostatic potential decreases with distance |r| more slowly (102) than the potential of the point charge potential ( (r) |r|-1 ). 5. Conclusion We consider fractional power-law type generalizations of permittivity, and generalizations of the correspondent equations for electrostatic potential (r) by involving the fractional generalization of the Laplacian [38,39,4,5]. The simplest power-law forms of the longitudinal permittivity (|k|) =


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a
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

b
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

0

20

40 x

60

80

100

0

20

40 x

60

80

100

c
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

d
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

0

20

40 x

60

80

100

0

20

40 x

60

80

100

Fig. 4. Plots of Coulomb's electrostatic potential (x) = x-1 and the electrostatic potentials y = x-1 · C2, , (x) (the weak spatial dispersion case) with a = a = = 1 for the orders: (a) = 0.1 and = 1.1, (b) = 0.2 and = 0.4, (c) = 0.4 and = 1.4, (d) = 0.8 and = 1.8. Here x = |r| and we use 0 < x < 100. The asymptotic behavior for long distances is defined by only.

0 |k|

-2

+r

-2
D

|k|

-2



are suggested. The parameter characterizes the deviation from Coulomb's

law due to non-local properties of the medium. The parameter characterizes the deviation from Debye's screening due to non-integer power-law type of non-locality in the medium. The correspondent Eq. (35) for electrostatic potential (r) that has the form ((-) /2 )(r) + - - rD 2 ((-) /2 )(r) = 0 1 (r), contains (-) /2 and (-) /2 are the Riesz fractional Laplacian [38,39,4,5], and r and rD are dimensionless variables. To the mentioned model can be find a explicit solution in terms of a Green type function. Also we will describe analytic solutions of the fractional differential equations (35) for electrostatic potentials. The electrostatic potential of the point charge has form (r) = Q /(4 0 |r|) · C , (|r|), where C , (|r|) is defined by (58) describes the differences of Coulomb's potential and Debye's screening. Using the analytic solutions of the fractional differential equations for electrostatic potentials, we describe the asymptotic behaviors of the electrostatic potential. The new type of behavior of the spatial-dispersion media with power-law non-locality is presented by power-law decreasing of the field at long distances instead of exponential decay. In order to describe the properties of deviations separately, we consider the following special cases of the proposed model: (1) Fractional model of non-local deformation of Coulomb's law in the media with spatial dispersion that corresponds to the case = 0 and = 2, > 1. This model allows us to describe a possible deviation from Coulomb's law in the media with nonlocal properties defined by power-law type of spatial dispersion. The electrostatic potential of the point charge in a media with this type of spatial dispersion has the form (r) |r| -3 for 1 < < 2 and 2 < < 3 on small distances |r| 0. In the case


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> 3, we have the constant value of the potential for |r| 0. Therefore the electric field E of a point charge in the media with power-law type of spatial dispersion with > 3 is equal to zero at small distances |r| 0 that is analogous to the well-known case of the field inside a conducting charged sphere of the radius Reff , for small distances. The asymptotic behavior of potential for |r| follow a power-law type also by our assumption. From the corresponding plots, we observe that the C ,2 (|r|) decreases more slowly than Debye's exponent CD (|r|). The function C ,2 (|r|) has a maximum for the case 2 < < 3 and the maximum does not exists for 1 < < 2, while for the particular case = 2
it is well-known that it is the classical exponential Debye's screening. (2) Fractional model of non-local deformation of Debye's screening in the media with spatial dispersion is defined by = 2 and 0 < < 2. Such model allows us to describe a possible deviation from Debye's screening by non-local properties of the plasma-like media with the generalized powerlaw type of spatial dispersion. The generalized non-local properties deforms Debye's screening such that the exponential decay is replaced by the fractional power-law, and the electrostatic potential of the point charge in the media with this type of spatial dispersion is given by (r) |r| -3 for 0 < < 2 on the long distance |r| . (3) Fractional non-local model that is described by Eq. (54) includes two parameters ( , ), where > > 0 such that = 2. In such model non-local properties deforms Coulomb's law and Debye's screening such that we have the fractional power-law decay for 0 < < 3 and > . The asymptotic behavior |r| does not depend on the parameter . The field on the long distances is determined only by term with (-) /2 that can be interpreted as a non-local deformation of Debye's term. It is remarkable that exist a maximum for the factor C , (|r|) in the case 0 < < 2 < . The asymptotic behavior for |r| 0 is given by (r) |r| -3 for 1 < < 2 and 2 < < 3, and (r) is a constant for > 3. Note that the above asymptotic behavior does not depend on the - parameters and rD 2 . The field on the short distances is determined only by term with (-) /2 , that can be considered as a non-local deformation of Coulomb's term. We also consider weak spatial dispersion in the media with fractional power-law type of nonlocality. In general, it cannot be describes by the usual Taylor approximation. The fractional Taylor series is very useful for approximating non-integer power-law functions. The media with spatial dispersion is described by the non-integer power-law type of functions (|k|). Using fractional generalization of the Taylor series (see Appendix B), we get approximations of the form (|k|)/0 + a |k| + a |k| for such type of media. If = 1 and = 2, we have the usual Taylor formula, and the well-known case of the weak spatial dispersion [26­37]. In general, we should use a fractional generalization of the Taylor series. If the orders of the fractional Taylor series approximation will be correlated with the type of weak spatial dispersion, then the fractional Taylor series approximation for (|k|) will be exact. These fractional weak spatial dispersions is described by equation of the form a ((-)( +2)/2 )(r) + a ((-)(+2)/2 )(r) - (r) = 10 (r). To this fractional differential equation we can be find a explicit solution in terms of a Green type function. Also we describe analytic solutions of the fractional differential equations for electrostatic potentials. It allows us to obtain the asymptotic behavior of ( ) ( ) the electrostatic potential of the form (r) Coulomb (r) + eff,dipole (r) + eff,dipole (r), where 0 < < < 1. The first term describes Coulomb's field. The second and third terms are interpreted as electrostatic fields generalized of changed dipoles of power-law type with the non-integer orders ( ) and , which have the form eff (r) = -deff ( ) cos eff ( )/(4 0 |r| +1 ), where 0 < < < 1, deff is the effective dipole moment, and is an effective angle. For integer case ( = 1) we have the usual from (r) = d cos /(4 0 |r|2 ) of the fields. Acknowledgments The first author thanks the Universidad de La Laguna for support and kind hospitality. This work was supported, in part, by Government of Spain grant No. MTM2010-16499 and by the President of Russian Federation grant for Science Schools No. 3920.2012.2.


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Appendix A. Riesz fractional derivatives and integrals Let us consider Riesz fractional derivatives and fractional integrals. The operations of fractional integration and fractional differentiation in the n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn can be considered as fractional powers of the Laplace operator. For > 0 and ``sufficiently good'' functions f (x), x Rn , the Riesz fractional differentiation is defined [38,39,4,5] in terms of the Fourier transform F by

(-)/2 f (x) = F x

-1

|k| (F f )(k) .

(105)

The Riesz fractional integration is defined by I f (x) = F - x
1

|k|- (F f )(k) .

(106)

The Riesz fractional integration can be realized in the form of the Riesz potential [38,39,4,5] defined as the Fourier convolution of the form Ix f (x) =



Rn

K (x - z )f (z )dz ,

( > 0),

(107)

where the function K (x) is the Riesz kernel. If > 0, and = n, n + 2, n + 4, . . . , the function K (x) is defined by
- K (x) = n 1 ( )|x| -n .

If = n, n + 2, n + 4, . . . , then
- K (x) = -n 1 ( )|x| -n ln |x|.

The constant n ( ) has the form

n ( ) =



2



n/2

( /2)/
2



n- 2



= n + 2j, n N, = n + 2j.

(-1)(n

- )/2 -1

n/2

(108)

( /2) (1 + [ - n]/2)

Obviously, the Fourier transform of the Riesz fractional integration is given by

F I f (x) = |k|- (F f )(k). x
This formula is true for functions f (x) belonging to Lizorkin's space. The Lizorkin spaces of test functions on Rn is a linear space of all complex-valued infinitely differentiable functions f (x) whose derivatives vanish at the origin:





= {f (x) : f (x) S (Rn ), (Dn f )(0) = 0, |n| N}, x

(109)

where S (Rn ) is the Schwartz test-function space. The Lizorkin space is invariant with respect to the Riesz fractional integration. Moreover, if f (x) belongs to the Lizorkin space, then I f (x)I f (x) = I + f (x), x x x where > 0, and > 0. For > 0, the Riesz fractional derivative (-) /2 = - / |x| can be defined in the form of the hypersingular integral (Section 26 in [4]) by

(-)x f (x) =

/2

1 dn (m, )


Rn

1

|z

|+n

(m f )(z ) dz , z

where m > , and ( f )(z ) is a finite difference of order m of a function f (x) with a vector step z Rn and centered at the point x Rn :

m z

m ( f )(z ) = (-1)j m z j=0

m! j! (m - j)!

f (x - jz ).


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The constant dn (m, ) is defined by dn (m, ) = where Am ( ) =
m j =0

2

1+n/2 Am ( ) , (1 + /2) (n/2 + /2) sin( /2)
m! j!(m - j)! j .
/2

(-1)

j-1

Note that the hypersingular integral (-)x f (x) does not depend on the choice of m > . If f (x) belongs to the space of ``sufficiently good'' functions, then the Fourier transform F of the Riesz fractional derivative is given by

(F (-)/2 f )(k) = |k| (F f )(k).
This equation is valid for the Lizorkin space [4] and the space C (Rn ) of infinitely differentiable functions on Rn with compact support. The Riesz fractional derivative yields an operator inverse to the Riesz fractional integration for a special space of functions. The formula

(-)

/2
x

Ix f (x) = f (x),

( > 0)

(110)

holds for ``sufficiently good'' functions f (x). In particular, Eq. (110) for f (x) belonging to the Lizorkin space. Moreover, this property is also valid for the Riesz fractional integration in the frame of /2 Lp -spaces: f (x) Lp (R) for 1 p < n/a. Here the Riesz fractional derivative (-)x is understood to be conditionally convergent in the sense that

(-)

/2
x

/ = lim (-),2 , x 0 /2

(111)

where the limit is taken in the norm of the space Lp (R), and the operator (-)x, is defined by

(-)

/2 x,

=

(m f )(z ) dz , z dn (m, ) |z |> |z | +n

1



1

where m > , and (m f )(z ) is a finite difference of order m of a function f (x) with a vector step z z Rn and centered at the point x Rn . As a result, the following property holds. If 0 < < n and f (x) Lp (R) for 1 p < n/a, then

(-)

/2
x

Ix f (x) = f (x),

( > 0),

where (-)x is understood in the sense of (111), with the limit being taken in the norm of the space Lp (R). This result is proved in [4] (see Theorem 26.3). We note that the Riesz fractional derivatives appear in the continuous limit of lattice models with long-range interactions [18]. Appendix B. Fractional Taylor formula Riemann­Liouville and Caputo derivatives The left-sided Riemann­Liouville derivatives of order > 0 are defined by

/2

(

RL

D+ a

f )(x) =

1



d dx

n
a

x

f (x ) dx

(n - )
d dx

(x - x )

-n +1

,

(n = [ ] + 1).

(112)

We can rewrite this relation in the form

(

RL

D+ a

f )(x) =

n

n- (Ia+ f )(x),

(113)


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where Ia+ is a left-sided Riemann­Liouville integral of order > 0

(I f )(x) =

a+

1


a

x

f (x ) dx

( )
I

(x - x )1
d dx

-

,

(x > a).

(114)

The Caputo fractional derivative of order is defined by

(

C

D+ a

f )(x) =

n- a+



n


f

(x),

(115)

where Ia+ is a left-sided Riemann­Liouville integral (114) of order > 0. In Eq. (127) we use 0 < < 1 and n = 1. The main distinguishing feature of the Caputo fractional derivative is that, like the integer order derivative, the Caputo fractional derivative of a constant is zero. Note also that the third term in (127) involves the fractional derivative of the fractional derivative, which is not the same as the 2 fractional derivative. In general, ( C D+ C D+ f )(x) = ( C D2+ f )(x). a a a

Then the coefficients of the fractional Taylor series can be found in the usual way, by repeated differentiation. This is to ensure that the fractional derivative of order of the function (x - a) is a constant. The repeated the fractional derivative of order gives zero. Then the coefficients of the fractional Taylor series can be found in the usual way, by repeated differentiation. Fractional Taylor series in the Riemann­Liouville form
+ Let f (x) be a real-valued function such that the derivative ( RL D+ m f )(x) is integrable. Then the a following analog of Taylor formula holds (see Chapter 1. Section 2.6 [4]):
m-1

f (x) =
+j

+ ( RL D+ j f )(a+) a (x - a) ( + j + 1) j =0

+j

+ Rm (x),

( > 0),

(116)

where Da+ are left-sided Riemann­Liouville derivatives, and
+ Rm (x) = (Ia+
m RL

+ D+ m f )(x). a

(117)

Riemann formal version of the generalized Taylor series The Riemann formal version of the generalized Taylor series [46,47]: f (x) =
+ ( RL D+m f )(x0 ) a (x - x0 ) ( + m + 1) m=- +m

,
RL

(118)
- D = Ia for < 0 is the a

where RL D for > 0 is the Riemann­Liouville fractional derivative, and a Riemann­Liouville fractional integral of order | |. Fractional Taylor series in the Trujillo­Rivero­Bonilla form

The Trujillo­Rivero­Bonilla form of the generalized Taylor formula [48]: f (x) =
m j =0

cj

((j + 1) )
1-

(x - a)(j

+1) -1

+ Rm (x, a),

(119)

where [0; 1], and cj =

( ) [(x - a)

( RL D )j f (x)](a+), a
1)

(120)

Rm (x, a) =

(( RL D )m+1 f )( ) a (x - a)(m+ ((m + 1) + 1)

,

[a; x].

(121)


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22 V.E. Tarasov, J.J. Trujillo / Annals of Physics 334 (2013) 1­23

Fractional Taylor series in the Dzherbashyan­Nersesian form Let k , (k = 0, 1, . . . , m) be increasing sequence of real numbers such that 0 < k - k-1 1,

0 = 0, k = 1, 2, . . . , m. .

(122)

We introduce the notation [49,50] (see also Section 2.8 in [4]):
1-( - D(k ) = I0+ k
k-1

) 1+k-1 D0+

(123)

k In general, D(k ) = RL D0+ . Fractional derivative D(k ) differs from the Riemann­Liouville derivative k RL D0+ by finite sum of power functions since (see Eq. (2.68) in [5]) + I0+ I0+ = I0+ .

(124)

The generalized Taylor formula [49,50]
m-1

f ( x) = where


k=0

ak xk + Rm (x),

(x > 0)

(125)

(D(k ) f )(0) ak = , (k + 1)

Rm (x) =

1


0

x

(m + 1)

(x - z )

m

-1

(D(k ) f )(z ) dz .

(126)

Fractional Taylor series in the Odibat­Shawagfeh form

is the fractional order of differentiation, 0 < < 1. The fractional Taylor series with Caputo
derivatives [51] has the form f ( x ) = f ( a) +

The fractional Taylor series is a generalization of the Taylor series for fractional derivatives, where

( C D+ f )(a) ( C D+ C D+ f )(a) a a a ( x - a) + (x - a)2 + · · · , ( + 1) (2 + 1)

(127)

where C D+ is the Caputo fractional derivative of order . a References
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