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EUR O P E AN CO MM I S S I ON
Community R esear ch

Women and Science
Statistics and Indicators

She Figures 2003


European Commission Directorate-General for Research
Science and Society

"She Figures"
Women and Science Statistics and Indicators

2003

EUR 20733


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Preface
Monitoring the progress towards gender equality in science has become a well-established activity of the European Union's research policy. Now, and thanks to the considerable efforts mobilised by the various stakeholders, especially the Helsinki Group on Women and Science and its sub-group of Statistical Correspondents, "She Figures" broadens the existing base of descriptive statistics. It enables the reader to deepen her or his understanding of the participation of women as graduates, as researchers, as academic staff, as funding beneficiaries and as board members. These statistics reveal that Women and Science is indeed a European question. Women remain in the minority in public research (34% in 2001, a slight increase from 32% in 1999), but their annual growth rate is 8% compared to that of 3.1% for men. This represents an increase of some 50 000 researchers in this sector in the period, of which just over half were women. This changing situation also calls for closer gender monitoring in the exercise of Benchmarking national research policies. This progress is most welcome and encouraging, but we should not react to it with complacency. It is still of utmost importance for the success of the European Research Area that women continue to increase their participation in European science. Their collective voices must be heard both as decisionmakers in science and as catalysts of change in the scientific workplace. Indeed, we will not reach the 3% objective if we fail to recruit, retain and promote the women who constitute an important share of Europe's pool of trained scientists. Young Europeans in schools, laboratories, universities and research centres who are interested in science need to see that science is a rewarding career choice. I am convinced that the promotion of a research environment free of gender bias is beneficial to science and will reinforce the democratic support of all European citizens.

Philippe BUSQUIN Commissioner for Research


Acknowledgements
Gender mainstreaming, by its very nature, cannot happen in isolation. It requires a consistent and focused effort on the part of many players if it is to be achieved. In the same way, the data and texts in She Figures are the outcome of a co-ordinated working effort, which has benefited from the expertise of many individuals across Europe. I would particularly like to thank the following women and men who have all made valuable contributions to this booklet:
· · ·

The Statistical Correspondents of the Helsinki Group on Women and Science for providing the data and technical advice. Ruth Springham, SÈverine Kohl and CÈcile Contal for preparing and compiling the data and calculating the indicators. Adele Menniti and Rossella Palomba of the Research Institute for Population and Social Policy, Rome, for preparation of the texts. Judith Glover of University of Surrey Roehampton, UK and Eeva-Sisko Veikkola, retired from Statistics Finland for their input and expertise. Ward Ziarko of the Belgian Federal Service for Scientific, Technical and Cultural Affairs; Giulio Perani from ISTAT, Italy; Jetty Faber from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Netherlands; Andrea Knop from Statistics Austria; Isabel GonÃalves from the ObservatÑrio das CiÉncias e das Tecnologias, Portugal; Anna Bengtsson of Statistiska CentralbyrÅn, Sweden; and Georgios Dogoritis from the Statistical Service of Cyprus for provision and verification of data. Alex Simpson and Christophe Zerr for the preparation of S&E and HRST data, and Claudine Greiveldinger for verification of the education data. Mary Dunne, Simona Frank, August GÆtzfried, Ibrahim Laafia, Anna Larsson, Jean-Louis Mercy, Spyros Pilos, Guido Strack and Karin Winqvist at Eurostat for providing data and advice. Ugur Muldur, Fotini Chiou, Angela Hullmann, Marianne Paasi and Anastassia Vakalopoulou of Unit K3, "Competitiveness, economic analysis and indicators" in the Directorate-General for Research for their advice and support. Brigitte Degen, Johannes Klumpers and Stephen Parker of the Science and Society Directorate for their editorial comments. Linda Maxwell of the Women and Science Unit for practical support. Marge Fauvelle of the Women and Science Unit for impetus and overall co-ordination of this project. NICOLE DEWANDRE Head of the Women and Science Unit

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Executive summary
"She Figures" is the result of two years of methodological and statistical work undertaken by the Commission in co-operation with the Statistical Corespondents of the Helsinki Group on Women and Science. This work has involved discussions on the harmonisation of data, two data collection exercises and the development of a coherent system of statistical indicators. The intention is for it to serve as a solid benchmarking tool for scientists, researchers, policy makers and human resource managers concerned by women and science. By presenting the results from these indicators, this publication describes some of the common trends in the employment of European women and men scientists and researchers: · There are broadly equal numbers of men and women working in science and technology occupations when a wide definition of S&T is examined. · On the other hand, women are consistently under-represented as PhD graduates, as researchers ­ especially in the Business Enterprise Sector, among senior university staff and as members of scientific boards. · Only a third of researchers in higher education and government research institutions are women. Furthermore only 15% of researchers in the business enterprise sector are women. · The rates of increase are currently higher for women than for men PhD graduates and researchers in most countries and sectors. As the most detailed collection of statistics and indicators yet available, "She Figures" is also a tool that enables analysts at national level to review the overall patterns in scientific education and employment by field of study and field of science. The results indicate that there are strong common gender patterns in the distributions of women and men in the scientific fields across Europe, among PhD graduates, in research and in academia. Women remain under-represented in engineering and natural sciences but form the major part of people performing research in humanities and social sciences in many countries. However, for the first time a deeper analysis of senior university staff by field of science reveals that there are still relatively few women in leadership positions in these fields. In fact there appears to be a serious dichotomy in career outcomes for men and women in academia. The average percentage of women (13.2%) in senior academic positions in the Member States in 2000 was lower than we would have expected from the overall percentage for all women in all academic positions (31%). It is, on the other hand, an increase from 11.6% in 1999. The data on academic staff are drawn from national surveys of higher education systems, and there are, as a result, some differences in the coverage and in the definitions applied. However, among all men covered by these surveys, as many as 19% have reached senior positions, whereas only 6% of the women surveyed have enjoyed the same recognition.


The data therefore suggest that women are least present in the most highly rewarded positions. This appears to be the case for Member States and for Associated Countries alike. In fact, there are slightly higher proportions of women participating in science and research in the Associated Countries, but the dichotomy in seniority is just as pronounced. The purpose of "She Figures" is simply to present the available data, so it is not possible to establish to what extent this is due to women's choices (i.e. a work-life trade-off whereby they settle for the low-pressure/ low-reward posts) or to invisible barriers in promotion mechanisms. Two other aspects of success and fairness that are central to the scientific system are explored. The first of these is the attribution of research funds. The figures reveal a general pattern whereby the success rates are slightly but consistently higher for men than for women. Statistical tests1 show that these differences are in fact significant for several countries. The second aspect is concerned with the representation of women in scientific decision-making and therefore examines the sex composition of scientific boards. The indicators show that women are under-represented in all countries, with only one exception. More work is needed to study the mechanisms of the composition of scientific boards to discover why this is and how this can be redressed. The possibilities for measuring the progress towards gender equality in science have clearly come a long way since the late 1990s. The breakdown of data, not only by sex but also by field

and by seniority, is crucial for an accurate overview of the current situation in Europe. It is important to continue monitoring the indicators presented in "She Figures" in order to measure the rapid change occurring in the gender dynamics of the European Research Area. These indicators will also be developed as the quantity and quality of available sexdisaggregated data improves.

1

Chi Squared (X2)


Table
of
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES GENERAL INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1. The critical mass
Advanced Research Graduates (ISCED 6) Human Resources in Science and Technology (HRST) Scientists and Engineers (S&E) Researchers (RSEs)

contents
11 14 19
23 26 27 28

CHAPTER 2. Gender differences across scientific fields
Advanced Research Graduates (ISCED 6) Researchers

40
43 47

CHAPTER 3. Seniority in academia and R&D

59
62 67

9

Academic staff Research and Development Personnel

CHAPTER 4. Gender equity in setting the scientific agenda
Research funding applicants and beneficiaries Scientific boards

72
74 75


Table
ANNEX 1
Data relating to Chapter 1

77

ANNEX 2

of

contents

82

Data relating to Chapter 2

ANNEX 3
Data relating to Chapter 3

90

ANNEX 4
Data relating to Chapter 4

95

ANNEX 5
Methodological Notes

97

ANNEX 6
Women & Science Indicators list

107

ANNEX 7
The Helsinki Group on Women & Science - List of Statistical Correspondents

111

10

REFERENCES

114


List of Tables and Figures
CHAPTER 1. The critical mass
Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 1.1.a 1.1.b 1.2.a 1.2.b 1.3.a 1.3.b 1.4 Percentage of ISCED 6 graduates who are women in EU Member States, 2001 Percentage of ISCED 6 graduates who are women in Associated Countries, 2001 Compound annual growth rate of ISCED 6 graduates by sex in EU Member States, 1998-2001 Compound annual growth rate of ISCED 6 graduates by sex in Associated countries, 1998-2001 Percentage of HRSTE who are HRSTC by sex, EU Member States, 2002 Percentage of HRSTE who are HRSTC by sex, Associated countries, 2002 Distribution of Scientists and Engineers by sex as a percentage of the total labour force, EU Member States, 2001 Distribution of researchers per thousand labour force by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1999 Distribution of researchers per thousand labour force by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2000 Percentage of researchers who are women by sector in EU Member States, HC, 2000 Percentage of researchers who are women by sector in Associated Countries, HC, 2000 Distribution of researchers by sector and by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1999 Distribution of researchers by sector and by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2000 Number of researchers in PNP sector by sex; percentage women; FR; RSEs in PNP as a percentage of RSEs in all sectors in available countries, HC, 2000 Compound annual growth rate of researchers in HES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1998-2001 Compound annual growth rate of researchers in HES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1998-2001 Compound annual growth rate of researchers in GOV by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-2000 Compound annual growth rate of researchers in GOV by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1998-2001 Compound annual growth rate of researchers in BES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-1999 Compound annual growth rate of researchers in BES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1998-2001 23 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 32 33 35 36 37 38 39 39

Figure 1.5.a Figure 1.5.b Figure 1.6.a Figure 1.6.b Table 1.1.a Table 1.1.b Table 1.2 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 1.7.a 1.7.b 1.8.a 1.8.b 1.9.a 1.9.b

CHAPTER 2. Gender differences across scientific fields
Table 2.1.a Table 2.1.b Figure 2.1.a Figure 2.1.b Table 2.2.a Table 2.2.b Figure 2.2.a Figure 2.2.b Table 2.3.a Table 2.3.b Figure 2.3.a Percentage of ISCED 6 graduates who are women by broad field of study in EU Member States, 2001 Percentage of ISCED 6 graduates who are women by broad field of study in Associated Countries, 2001 Distribution of ISCED 6 graduates across the broad fields of study by sex in EU Member States, 2001 Distribution of ISCED 6 graduates across the broad fields of study by sex in Associated Countries, 2001 Percentage of researchers who are women by field of science in HES in EU Member States, HC, 1999 Percentage of researchers who are women by field of science in HES in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000 Distribution of researchers across the fields of science in HES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1999 Distribution of researchers across the fields of science in HES by sex in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000 Percentage of researchers who are women by field of science in GOV in EU Member States, FTE, 1999 Percentage of researchers who are women by field of science in GOV in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000 Distribution of researchers across the fields of science in GOV by sex in EU Member States, FTE, 1999 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

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Figure 2.3.b Table 2.4.a Table 2.4.b Figure 2.4.a Figure 2.4.b Table 2.5.a Table 2.5.b

Distribution of researchers across the fields of science in GOV by sex in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000 Percentage of researchers who are women by NACE category in BES in EU Member States, HC, 1999 Percentage of researchers who are women by NACE category in BES in Associated Countries, HC, 2001 Distribution of researchers across NACE categories in BES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1999 Distribution of researchers across NACE categories in BES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2001 Index of Dissimilarity and Feminisation Ratio for researchers in HES in EU Member States, HC, 1999 Index of Dissimilarity and Feminisation Ratio for researchers in HES in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000

54 55 55 56 56 58 58

CHAPTER 3. Seniority in academia and R&D
Figure 3.1.a Figure 3.1.b Table 3.1.a Table 3.1.b Table 3.2 Figure 3.2.a Figure 3.2.b Table 3.3.a Table 3.3.b Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Feminisation Ratio among senior academic staff (grade A) in EU Member States, HC, 2000 Feminisation Ratio among senior academic staff (grade A) in Associated Countries, HC, 2001 Percentage of academic staff who are grade A by sex. Percentage of academic staff and grade A staff who are women, EU Member States, HC, 2000 Percentage of academic staff who are grade A by sex. Percentage of academic staff and grade A staff who are women, Associated Countries, HC, 2001 Percentage of grade A staff who are women by main field of science in all available countries, HC, 2001 Distribution of grade A staff across the fields of science by sex in EU Member States, HC, 2000 Distribution of grade A staff across the fields of science by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2001 Distribution of R&D personnel across the occupations by sector and sex in EU Member States, HC, 2000 Distribution of R&D personnel across the occupations by sector and sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2000 Scatter plot of the Feminisation Ratios of researchers and technicians in HES, all countries, HC 2000 Scatter plot of the Feminisation Ratios of researchers and technicians in GOV, all countries, HC, 2000 Scatter plot of the Feminisation Ratios of researchers and technicians in BES, all countries, HC, 2000 62 62 64 64 65 66 66 67 68 70 70 71

CHAPTER 4. Gender equity in setting the scientific agenda
Figure Figure Figure Figure 4.1.a 4.1.b 4.2.a 4.2.b Research funding success Research funding success Percentage of women on Percentage of women on rates in EU Member States, 2001 rates in Associated countries, 2001 scientific boards (academies and universities) in EU Member States, 2001 scientific boards (academies and universities) in Associated countries, 2001 75 75 76 76

ANNEX 1
Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex 1.1.a 1.1.b 1.2.a 1.2.b 1.3.a 1.3.b 1.4.a 1.4.b Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number of of of of of of of of ISCED 6 graduates by sex in EU Member States, 1998-2001 ISCED 6 graduates by sex in Associated Countries, 1998-2001 researchers in HES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-2001 researchers in HES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1997-2001 researchers in GOV by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-2001 researchers in GOV by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1997-2001 researchers in BES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-2001 researchers in BES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1997-2001 78 78 79 79 80 80 81 81

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ANNEX 2
Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex Annex 2.1.a 2.1.b 2.2.a 2.2.b 2.3.a 2.3.b 2.4.a 2.4.b Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number of of of of of of of of ISCED 6 graduates by broad field of study and sex in EU Member States, 2001 ISCED 6 graduates by broad field of study and sex in Associated Countries, 2001 researchers by main field of science and sex in HES in EU Member States, HC, 1999 researchers by main field of science and sex in HES in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000 researchers by main field of science and sex in GOV in EU Member States, FTE, 1999 researchers by main field of science and sex in GOV in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000 researchers by NACE category and sex in BES in EU Member States, HC, 1999 researchers by NACE category and sex in BES in Associated Countries, HC, 2001 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89

ANNEX 3
Annex 3.1.a Annex 3.1.b Annex Annex Annex Annex 3.2.a 3.2.b 3.3.a 3.3.b Number by sex in Number by sex in Number Number Number Number of senior academic staff (grade A) and total number of academic staff (grades A+B+C+D) EU Member States, HC, 2000 of senior academic staff (grade A) and total number of academic staff (grades A+B+C+D) Associated Countries, HC, 2001 of grade A academic staff by main field of science and sex in EU Member States, HC, 2000 of grade A academic staff by main field of science and sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2001 of R&D personnel by sector, occupation and sex in EU Member States, HC, 2000 of R&D personnel by sector, occupation and sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2000 90 90 91 92 93 94

ANNEX 4
Annex Annex Annex Annex 4.1.a 4.1.b 4.2.a 4.2.b Number Number Number Number of of of of applicants and beneficiaries of research funding by sex in EU Member States, 2001 applicants and beneficiaries of research funding by sex in Associated countries, 2001 women and men on scientific boards (academies and universities), EU Member States, 2001 women and men on scientific boards (academies and universities), Associated Countries, 2001 95 95 96 96

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14

General Introduction


General Introduction
"Statistics are central, the word comes from `numbers for the state', if you wish to have policy, you have to have competent statistics. No statistics, no problem, no policy. You just get gestures. Statistics help identify problems and can monitor the effectiveness of remedies" Dr. Hilary Rose, Emeritus Professor University of Bradford, United Kingdom The role and participation of women as scientists emerged as a major policy concern at EU level in the late 1990's. The European Commission's activities in this domain are now producing a range of results, including a collection of sex-disaggregated statistics on scientists and researchers1. The objective of this publication is to present the breadth of relevant data that are currently available with the intention of facilitating the utilisation of policy-relevant gender indicators at institutional, national and European level. Some readymade primary analysis has been prepared for the busier reader in the main body of the booklet. The raw data from which these indicators have been calculated are presented in Annexes 1-4. By presenting the raw data, researchers who wish to analyse national data in more depth will also have the necessary information at their fingertips. It was therefore decided to form a sub-group of Statistical Correspondents3 from each country (see Annex 7 for a list of the members), who have collaborated with the Commission to produce this booklet. An action entitled "Monitoring progress towards gender equality in science" was included as Action 25 of the Science and Society Action Plan (European Commission 2002). The Statistical Correspondents have subsequently developed The "Helsinki Group on Women and Science" are policy experts from the Member States and from countries associated to the Framework Programme. When they met for the first time in 1999, they found that, although sex-disaggregated data were available nationally, no harmonised data were available at European level to enable a full and informed debate2.

1

15

2

3

In order to study the influence of gender in the organisation of society, it is vital to have data broken down by the sex of the observed population. In this booklet the term `sex' relates to whether individuals are male or female and the term `gender' refers to the way in which social and professional roles appear to be pre-determined by sex. This message was consistently reiterated by experts at the time, see, for example, European Commission, 1999. Turkey became associated to the Framework Programme in 2003, so it has not yet been possible to include the Turkish data .


a system of indicators (listed in Annex 6) based on available data and the most pressing information needs. "She Figures" presents the results for many of these indicators relating to 1999, 2000 and 2001. On the eve of European enlargement, data for the European Union Member States appear shoulder to shoulder with those of the Associated Countries. For gender indicators to be fully useful they should be formulated in such a way that governments, policy-makers and R&D managers can draw coherent and valid conclusions from them. In order to undertake balanced comparative analysis of the situations of women scientists in each different country it is vital to have a thorough overview of the depth of different national systems. In the text accompanying the data in this booklet, as well as in the methodological notes, every effort has been made to ensure that data can be interpreted correctly. Although women remain seriously under-represented in science4 and R&D across Europe, the extent of the under-representation varies and is closely linked to the different cultural, social and economic settings of each country. These differences should also be taken into account in interpreting the data. The value and demand for statistics on Women and Science Case studies at national and sub-national levels reveal that differences exist between men and women for career paths, research outputs, earnings and funding. There is a constant demand from policy-makers, social and economic researchers,
4

analysts and scientists themselves for timely information in order to monitor this situation, to establish priorities, to evaluate costs and benefits, to make decisions and draw conclusions regarding the effects of new policies and actions. Therefore, countries must and do devote considerable resources to the collection, production and publication of statistics and indicators. Statistics can therefore lend a high level of social and political relevance to the situations of specific sub-groups within the population, in this case, women scientists. Gender mainstreaming in S&T statistics This demand for more and better sex-disaggregated data is an integral part of gender mainstreaming, the term coined for openly taking into account and systematically integrating the respective situations of women and men in policy development, with a view to promoting gender equality5. In the specific case of Women and Science, it was given added impetus by a Commission communication6, two European Research Council resolutions7 and two European Parliament Resolutions8.
5 6

7

8

16

In this booklet the term science is used in a very broad sense and it includes the social sciences and humanities.

European Commission, (1998). Communication of the Commission: "Women and science" Mobilising women to enrich European research - Brussels 17/02/99 COM (1999)76 final. Council Resolution on "Women and science" Brussels, 01/06/99 (OR. En) 8565/99. Council Resolution on Science and Society and on Women in Science, Brussels, 03/07/01 (OR.en) 10357/01. Parliament Resolution PE 284.656 on the Communication of the Commission listed above, §6 & §23; Parliament Resolution (RR\431754EN.doc - PE 297.122) on the Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions "Making a reality of The European Research Area: Guidelines for EU research activities" (2002-2006) (COM (2002) 612 - C5-0738/20002000/2334(COS)) §44.


In the context of the establishment of a European Research Area, there is a high-level group of experts on Benchmarking National Research Policies. Part of the remit of this group is to suggest and oversee an indicators activity in which the breakdown by sex is requested for all human resource statistics. In addition to these fundamental steps, the Directorate-General for Research has made firm improvements to the system for monitoring the participation of women in the European Union's Sixth Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development. Gendered indicators are also starting to be developed in other related policy areas within the Commission. In Eurostat's `Statistical Programme of the Commission for the year 2003'9 "the development of gender statistics is an integrated part of all statistics on individuals. If possible, data on individuals are collected by sex in all subject areas, in line with the principle of gender mainstreaming. Gender statistics are relevant in all areas, including demographic, employment, social and information society statistics. Social statistics is co-ordinating the efforts of having more extensive presentation of gender statistics". This is certainly true for the R&D surveys, where Eurostat has requested the sex breakdown since 2002 for the Member States and EEA countries and since 2001 for the candidate countries. Although the inclusion of the sex variable into the European R&D survey has taken nearly two years to implement, it is now starting to produce concrete results. Furthermore, the sex breakdown will apply to all the main data items that should be covered by the forthcoming "Legal Basis on Science and Technology and Innovation Statistics".
9

The structural indicators, which underpin the analysis in the Spring Report each year, cover six domains, one of which is "Innovation and Research". The Spring Report is an instrument for assessing the progress towards the Lisbon 2000 objective "of becoming the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion". There is one gender-specific indicator: the gender pay gap in the "Employment" domain. A principle was introduced in 2002 that all indicators should be broken down by sex (where possible and relevant). Employment outcomes of women as scientists are hinged upon the collective performance of women in education, particularly higher education. At the Education Council on 5 May 2003, the European Ministers of Education adopted five European benchmarks. One of these is "the total number of graduates in mathematics, science and technology in the European Union should increase by at least 15% by 2010 while at the same time the level of gender imbalance should decrease". The Directorate-General for Education and Culture also requests the sex breakdown in the course of its statistical activities. So, the mainstreaming of sex-disaggregated statistics relating to S&T education and employment is really being implemented in practice by many of the Commission's services10.
10

17

Approved by the Commission on 2 December 2002

This is also the case in many areas where statistics are not necessarily the priority. For example, the Directorate-General for Justice and Home Affairs has specific action programmes targeted at women (Jakobsson, 2002).


Data Sources Many of the statistics presented in "She Figures" are therefore drawn from the Commission Services' official sources, in particular where they relate to education, R&D and the labour force. These data, although valuable, tell us about the overall participation of women as graduates and as researchers, but do not give a deeper insight into the existence of gender-specific dynamics in the scientific workplace. The Helsinki Group Statistical Correspondents have therefore reported additional data on academic staff, the applicants for and recipients of research funding and the sex composition of scientific boards, as well as R&D data (for a few countries only). The work of the Statistical Correspondents of the Helsinki Group When the Statistical Correspondents of the Helsinki Group on Women and Science first met in March 2001, their information needs were honed into five broad policy concerns: "How Many?"; "Horizontal Segregation"; "Vertical Segregation", "Pay Gap" and "Fairness and Success Rates". Their discussions revealed that a selection of relevant data on these topics was available from most countries and it was decided to press ahead and collect them on an ad hoc basis, with the exception of "Pay Gap" for which no data were available. Each of the other four policy themes is presented in a separate Chapter in "She Figures": "How Many?" question. "Horizontal Segregation" is tackled in Chapter 2 with data broken down by field of science and field of study as well as by sex. In Chapter 3, career progression for academic staff and R&D personnel is presented to illustrate "Vertical Segregation". In Chapter 4, data on funding applicants and beneficiaries and the members of scientific boards are examined in order to provide descriptive measures of "Fairness and Success Rates". These statistics are collected by R&D surveys, Higher Education surveys, Ministries and Academies of Science, Research Councils and Universities as part of their own monitoring systems. The joint repository for these data is referred to in "She Figures" as the "WiS (Women in Science) database. These data are not always ready for cross-national interpretation and comparison at European level. A review of the data and comparison of the results have enabled the group of statistical correspondents to identify the areas where methodological work is necessary. The data presented in "She Figures" are therefore the results of the work that has been achieved so far. Further work is still ongoing for a number of data items. Technical details relating to adherence to standards and classifications and data sources can be found in Annex 5.

18

Chapter 1 ("The Critical Mass") provides an overview of the various scientific and research populations to respond to the


19

The critical mass


1. The Critical Mass
The figures presented in this Chapter provide a thorough overview of gender patterns for scientists and researchers studying and working in Europe. PhD Graduates The gender balance of the graduate population serves as an indication of the profile of the potential highly-qualified workforce of the future. Patterns of graduation from higher education can be taken as baseline for examining access to knowledge-intensive careers, including science. The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) identifies a specific level ­ ISCED 6 ­ as "tertiary programmes which lead to the award of an advanced research qualification" (UNESCO, 1997). Education programmes such as PhDs and their equivalents are included in this level for all countries, as well as some post-doctoral programmes and, in a few cases, some shorter post-graduate programmes that are a pre-requisite for the Doctorate (for example the D.E.A. in France). In the Higher Education (HES) and Government (GOV) sectors, the PhD qualification is often a baseline qualification for a research career. By looking specifically at ISCED 6 graduates we are therefore identifying people who have been directly learning and executing research and are becoming qualified for research careers. It is sometimes suggested that the scarcity of women researchers may be due to differences in trends in educational attainment, but this Chapter reveals that this is not the case. Since we know that access to higher education increased throughout the 1990s (Strack, 2003) we can assume that the labour force in general is becoming more highly qualified. The approach here is to calculate the recent growth of numbers of graduates by sex over a three-year period1. This approach capitalises upon the most recent data, but smoothes out the effect of any sudden changes. In countries with smaller numbers of ISCED 6 graduates it is important to look at the increase in absolute terms as well, since a higher growth rate in the numbers of women does not necessarily signal that the increase is largely female. We can see that although women only constitute 39.6% of ISCED 6 graduates in Europe, their numbers are increasing by an annual average of 4.8%, as opposed to just 0.9% for men. This is therefore an environment in which noticeable and positive changes are taking place, both in the EU-15 and Associated Countries.

20

1

Another approach is to study retrospective data going back one generation. However, since the implementation of the revised ISCED and because of structural changes relating to access to higher education in Europe over the last two decades, it is not certain how much the results of such a study would tell us about the career outcomes of today's researchers.


Scientific Employment Many employment indicators vary according to gender and the gender patterns are again different between Member States and Accession Countries (Franco & Jouhette, 2003; Franco & BlÆndal, 2003). Furthermore, prime-age2 women are more likely (18%) than prime-age men (< 2%) to withdraw from the labour force to assume family responsibilities (Van Bastelaer & BlÆndal, 2003). The indicators in this Chapter should therefore be interpreted with the different employment contexts in mind. In this chapter, the gender patterns of three different employment groups are examined: · Human Resources in Science & Technology (HRST). This is the widest possible definition of scientists and includes S&T qualified graduates in the labour force and people who are working in professional or technician occupations. · Scientists and Engineers (S&E). Data for this group are also drawn from the Community Labour Force Survey, but are restricted to "Physical, mathematical and engineering science professionals" and therefore exclude the other fields of science, such as social, agricultural or medical sciences. · Researchers. According to the common definition in the Frascati Manual (OECD, 2002), "Researchers are professionals engaged in the conception or creation of new knowledge, products, processes, methods and systems and also in the management of the projects concerned". The data on researchers are drawn from R&D surveys.

From a gender perspective, it is important to examine each of these groups separately since they do not always yield the same results. More detailed information on the definitions and data sources can be found in Annex 5. HRST (Human Resources in Science & Technology) The HRST methodology proposed in the Canberra manual (OECD, 1994) enables us to identify S&T qualified graduates in the labour force (HRSTE); people who are working in professional or technician3 occupations (HRSTO); and people who fall into both these categories (HRSTC). In 2002, women constituted an average of 47.5% and 48.3% of HRSTE and HRSTC respectively. An average of 46.6% of HRSTE women are also HRSTC, the corresponding figure for men being 45.1%. This means that more or less half of the human resources in science and technology in Europe are women, and that the appropriately qualified women are slightly more likely than men to be working in an S&T occupation. It is important here to remember the breadth of the HRST categories, which include science-based workers who are not necessarily involved in research. In fact, closer analysis whereby the data are broken down by level of qualification for each Professionals and Technicians reveals that 67% of professionals with less than upper secondary education (2%)
2

21

3

25-54 year-olds. These averages mask considerable differences for women between countries, ranging from less than 2% in Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Iceland and Norway to 21% in Ireland and 26% in Greece. The definitions of Professionals and Technicians are taken from the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO-88) and are more fully described in Annex 5.


are men. On the other hand, among technicians, 53% of the 33% share that have achieved tertiary education are women4. These findings really confirm that under-qualification can no longer be regarded as a factor that is keeping women out of scientific employment. Furthermore, women seem to be more likely to take jobs for which they are over-qualified. Scientists and Engineers If we focus more specifically upon S&Es, then a marked change in the indicator results can be seen. With the exception of Finland, women S&Es are in the minority across the EU-15. Interestingly, in the countries with the highest percentages of S&Es in the labour force, women account for more than 40% of S&Es, signifying the actual and potential value of women S&Es to national economies. Researchers A closer look at researchers by sex across the sectors of the economy confirms that women remain under-represented in European research, but that the overall patterns of distribution are strikingly similar between countries. Women are consistently least present in the Business Enterprise Sector (BES) where they only account for 15% of researchers.

The same is true for the Associated Countries, with the exceptions of Bulgaria, Latvia and Romania where the Higher Education sector (HES) has the lowest proportions of women. The overall proportions of women researchers are generally higher in the Associated Countries than in the Member States. This is a reflection of the higher levels of female employment, including scientific employment and research, in the economies of these countries during recent decades. The EU average of 33.6% women researchers in the Higher Education Sector (HES) in 2000 has increased from 31.7% in 19995, but the average has remained at 31% for Government institutions (GOV) and at 15% for the BES (see RÝbsamenWaigmann et al., 2003). However, the lack of time series data for the Business Enterprise Sector prevents us from seeing whether any change has occurred6. It is particularly important to redress this imbalance in view of the increased numbers of researchers that are needed in the BES to reach the Barcelona objective of 3% of GDP devoted to R&D, of which two thirds should come from the BES.

22
4

5

6

European Commission, (2003)

See http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/science-society/women/wssi/pdf/how_ many_iii.pdf Although there are currently data gaps, several countries have just introduced surveys, to obtain these data. Belgium (since 2003 for 2001), the Netherlands (ad hoc survey for 2001), Sweden (since 2003) and the United Kingdom (the gender split was piloted in 2002 and will have been incorporated by reference year 2004).


Figure 1.1.a

Figure 1.1.b

Percentage of ISCED 6 graduates who are women in EU Member States, 2001(1)
% 60

Percentage of ISCED 6 graduates who are women in Associated Countries, 2001(1)
52,5
% 60

50,8

50,7

51,7

49,0

48,6

44,4

50

45,8

42,9

42,7

50

47,3 42,0

41,6

39,8

39,6

39,5

39,2

39,6

37,4

35,3

31,9

30

31,5

30

20

20

10

10

0

(2)

0

(2)

Italy Spain France Austria EU-15 KingdomSweden Belgium Portugal Finland Ireland Germany Denmark Netherlands United

Lithuania

Estonia Slovenia

Latvia

Israel

Bulgaria Poland Slovakia EU-15 Hungary Repu Czech

blic Norway

Source: Eurostat, Education Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DK, FR, IT, FI: 2000 (2) EU-15 estimate excludes EL and LU. Above exceptions to reference year apply

Source: Eurostat, Education; Israel Central Bureau of Statistics & Council for Higher Education Notes: (1)Exception to the reference year: CY, HU: 2000; IL: 1999 (2) EU-15 estimate excludes EL and LU. Exceptions to reference year as in Figure 1.1 a

At the age of 18, women in all the Member States, especially Ireland, are more likely (75%) than men (70%) to continue their studies (Dunne, 2003). While women consequently account for more than half of the two million graduates from the whole of higher education (the estimated EU average was 55.2% in 2000 and 55.8% in 2001) the EU average for PhD (ISCED level 6) graduates is lower at 39.6% for women.

Like the Member States, Norway has a high level of retention in education at age 18 (87.6% women and 84.6% men) but only a third of ISCED 6 graduates are women. Several of the Accession and Candidate Countries (Bulgaria, Cyprus, Malta, Romania and Slovakia) appear to have more difficulty than the Member States retaining both young women and young men in education at the age of 18. On the other hand, the Accession countries and Bulgaria tend, on the whole, to have higher proportions of women undergraduates and women ISCED 6 graduates than the Member States. This may be indicative of the different status of women in the economies of these countries. (See Annex 5 for country groupings).

23

However, this average has increased by one percentage point since 2000. These results indicate that the levels of women as PhD graduates are likely to increase gradually over the coming years.

34,4

40

34,7

40

37,1

38,0


Figure 1.2.a

Compound annual growth rate of ISCED 6 graduates by sex in EU Member States, 1998-2001(1)
% -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
14,9 14,2

30 Looking at the compound annual growth rates (see Box 1) since 1998, we can see that numbers of ISCED 6 graduates, in particular women, are largely on the increase. Growth is higher for women than for men in all countries except in Belgium and Italy. In Ireland, the increase was slightly higher for men than for women in absolute numbers, although the growth rate was higher for women. With the exceptions of Spain (where the percentage of women decreased between 2000 and 2001), Ireland, Italy and Portugal, the rates are generally very different for men and for women.

Sweden United Kingdom Belgium Ireland Finland EU-15 Portugal
(2)

Women Total Men

3,6

7,5

8,8 5,7 7,7 6,9 6,4 6,0 -0,8 2,1 5,8

14,8 18,5

(3)

4,8 2,4 0,9 4,4 3,9 3,3 -0,6 1,1 3,6

France Spain Austria Netherlands

3,6 2,9 2,3 -0,5 -2,6 -1,0 -0,1 -1,3 0,2 3,3 3,2
Source: Eurostat, Education Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: BE: 2000-2001; DK: 1999-2000; FR, IT, FI: 1998-2000, (2) EU-15 estimate excludes EL, LU and is calculated for 3-year period. Above exceptions to reference years apply (3) Provisional data

24

Germany Italy

2,1 1,6 1,9 2,2


Figure 1.2.b

Compound annual growth rate of ISCED 6 graduates by sex in Associated countries, 1998-2001(1)
% -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
24,8

Israel Czech Republic Lithuania Slovakia Slovenia Norway Bulgaria Latvia EU-15
(2)

Women Total Men

9,6 12,3

16,3

22,4

8,2

10,1

15,1 17,1

20,7

The growth rates of ISCED 6 graduates favour women in all countries except Estonia and Hungary, although in Slovakia, there was a marginally higher increase in the numbers of men graduates. The decline in Hungary's growth rate is more accentuated for women than for men, but in absolute terms the decrease was higher for men. Even though the rates of increase are higher for women here than they are for men, it is important to bear in mind that the percentage of women graduates from ISCED 6 programmes declined in Bulgaria, Iceland, Norway, Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia and Slovakia between 2000 and 2001.

13,1 10,7 4,0 9,7 12,3

-2,1

0,3

3,1 6,7 5,6 4,9

-16,8

-8,3

6,3

2,4 0,9

4,8

Estonia

4,7

12,0

22,7

25

Hungary

-21,9 -19,7 -18,2

Source: Eurostat, Education; Israel Central Bureau of Statistics & Council for Higher Education Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: HU: 1999 - 2001; IL: 1998-1999 (2) EU-15 rate calculated for 3-year period. Exceptions to reference years as per Figure 1.2.a


Figure 1.3.a

Percentage of HRSTE who are HRSTC by sex, EU Member States, 2002
% 100

Women
80

Men

60

40

20

0
any Nethe Italy Finlan Kin gdom d Greece France ark rlands bour g eden
(1)

Women constitute 51.6% of the population aged 15+ in Member States, 52.6% of the population aged 15+ in Accession Countries and 43.1% and 45.5% of the labour force in each group of countries respectively. In this context, 47.5% of S&T qualified graduates in the labour force (HRSTE) and 48.3% of people who are both HRSTE and working in professional or technician occupations (HRSTC) are women. Since about half of the HRSTE women (46.6%) and men (45.1%) are also HRSTC (i.e. both S&T qualified and working in professional or technician occupations), there appears on the surface to be very little gender difference in the utilisation of HRST and in the S&T returns to education.

Belgium

Portugal

Denm

Luxem

Germ

Sw

Figure 1.3.b

Percentage of HRSTE who are HRSTC by sex, Associated countries, 2002
% 100

United

Ireland

Spain

Women
80 60 40 20 0
(1)

Men

In the Accession Countries women constitute on average 54.2% of HRSTE and 57.5% of HRSTC. Furthermore, 53.4% of HRSTE who are HRSTC are women. After enlargement, the Accession Countries will boost the HRSTC stocks by 17.9% (women) and 12.4% (men), bringing the new EU-25 average of HRSTE that are HRSTC to 48.5% (women) and 46.1% (men).

Hungary

Czech

Switzerland

blic Romania

Slovenia

Iceland

Repu

Bulgaria

Slovakia

Norway

Estonia

Latvia

Poland

Cyprus

26

Source: Eurostat, Community Labour Force data Notes: (1) Exceptions to reference year: UK: 2000; IS: 2001.


Figure 1.4

Distribution of Scientists and Engineers by sex as a percentage of the total labour force, EU Member States, 2001(1)
9% 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 FI BE IE Men UK SE ES EU15 NL DK 4,2 3,3 3,0 2,6 2,2 1,6 1,5 1,4 1,2 1,1 DE 4,0 4,1 3,5 4,5 3,1 2,4 3,4 3,9 3,7 4,1 1,3 1,0 PT 1,0 LU 1,0 FR

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics, Community Labour Force data. Graph adapted from Statistics in Focus, Catalogue No. KS-NS-03005-EN-C Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: AT (1997); SE & UK (2000) These exceptions also apply to the EU-15 total

3,5

3,5 2,3 0,9 EL 1,9 0,8 IT 1,5 0,6 AT

Women

27

Information on Scientists and Engineers (S&Es) is derived from the labour force surveys, and refers to "Physical, mathematical and engineering" occupations and "Life science and health" occupations which are subgroups 21 and 22 ­ of the ISCO major group 2 "Professionals". It does not therefore include any of the people working in social or agricultural sciences that are included in the HRST data. Focussing on S&Es appears to exclude a disproportionate number of women since the proportion of women tails off markedly in many Member States. The countries with the most S&Es in the labour force are generally the ones with the highest proportions of women.


Figure 1.5.a

Distribution of researchers per thousand labour force by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1999(1)(2)
0 00

23,8

25

Women
20

Men

10,8

11,7

15

6,7

6,5

7,4

10 5,4 5,6

2,9

5

3,5

4,2

Although the definition of researchers encompasses a wider range of fields of science than S&E, they are a more specific and therefore far smaller group, as can be seen by comparing these results per thousand with those of Figure 1.4 in percent. As in Figure 1.4, Finland leads Europe in terms of the percentage of researchers and women researchers within the total labour force, but the presence of women as researchers is much lower than it is for S&E. There are high levels of male researchers in Finland, Norway and Iceland. Otherwise these results are very diverse, both between the sexes and between countries ­ especially for men.
Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics, Community Labour Force data; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: FR, FI: 2000; AT (RSEs only): 1998 (2) Excludes PNP (3) HES and GOV only

13,5

10,2

5,0

0

4,8

Denmark

Greece

Spain

France

Italy

4,8

5,0

Austria

Portugal

Finland

United

(3)

Figure 1.5.b

Kingdom

Distribution of researchers per thousand labour force by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2000(1)(2)
22,1
0 00

25

6,2

20

Men

11,8

11,8

15

7,9

10

8,4

8,9

20,0

Women

Iceland and Norway join Finland whereby research constitutes an important part of their labour forces. The intensity of research employment is far lower in Candidate countries, and the gender differences appear less pronounced.
Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics, Community Labour Force data; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: CZ, HU, LT, NO, RO, SK: 2001; IS: 1999 (2) Excludes PNP (3) FTE as exception to HC (RSEs only)
5,8

28

5,8 7,0

6,8

5,6

5,5

6,0

5,1

5,2

4,2

5,3

4,0

3,1

3,1

3,0

0

1,6

1,9

2,2

d Bulgaria Switzerlan Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Latvia Lithuania Norway Poland Romania Slovenia

Slovakia

3,2
(3)

5

3,2

4,0


Figure 1.6.a

Percentage of researchers who are women by sector in EU Member States, HC, 2000(1)
55

% 60

46

45

50

36

36

34

32 31

35

40

25

24

24

23

26

30

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: IT (HES), LU (HES & GOV), SE (HES): 2001; DK (BES), DE (BES), EL, ES (BES), IE (GOV, BES), IT (GOV), PT, SE (GOV): 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC: SE (GOV only); IE (GOV & BES only) (3) EU-15 estimate excludes BE & NL for GOV and BE, LU, NL, SE & UK for BES (4) Data provisional (5) Data not official
21 22

44

41

40

39

37

37

37

28

31

30

30

28

28

28

21

21

18

19

15

20

18

20

27

32

10

0

(2)

(2)

rtugal Greece Finland eden ingdom Ireland Po K Sw United

Spain

g bour

(4)

(3)

-15 EU

France

Luxem

(5) (2) s(2) ark Italy Austria any enm D Belgium Germ Netherland

Higher education sector

Government sector

Business enterprise sector

29

The overall presence of women as researchers is lower than we would have expected from the graduates and HRST figures. Although the sex breakdown is only available for 70% of the BES researchers in the Member States, the scarcity of women in the BES is more extreme than in public sector research (HES & GOV). Portugal is the only country that has more than 50% women researchers in a sector (GOV). It is useful to interpret these figures alongside results from Figures 1.2.a and 1.2.b to see where the feminisation of education is having an impact on the feminisation of research.

9

10


Figure 1.6.b

Percentage of researchers who are women by sector in Associated Countries, HC, 2000(1)
56

% 60
51 52

43 44

43

42

40

41

35 37

36 35

35 36

35

40
32 29

39

43

45

50

28

30

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: CZ, HU, IL, LV (BES), NO, RO, SK: 2001; IS: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) EU-15 estimate excludes BE & NL for GOV and BE, LU, NL, SE & UK for BES. See footnotes for Figure 1.3.a for exceptions to reference year
23 25

52

49

48 47

49 49

34

34

31

32 32

23

25

10

0

(2) (3) (2) d ay blic aria ania -15 Latvia Cyprus Israel Poland Norw Bulg Iceland Hungary Slovenia EU Estonia Repu itzerlan Rom Lithuania Slovakia Sw Czech

Higher education sector

Government sector

Business enterprise sector

30

As we may have expected from the ISCED graduates, there are higher proportions of women in research in the Associated Countries than in the EU. In most countries, women are again more seriously under-represented in the BES than in the other sectors, although every country has more than 15% women researchers (the EU average) in this sector. Latvia has the highest percentages of women in both the BES and the HES out of all of the countries in Europe. Based on 2000 data, Accession Countries will increase the numbers of EU researchers in the HES by more than 45 000 women and 72 000 men in 2004. Europe will also benefit from an estimated 14 000 women and 20 000 men in GOV and an estimated 8 000 women and 23 000 men in the BES, that is, an overall estimate of 182 000 researchers.

15

20

19 17

19

17

26

30

27

32


Table 1.1.a

Distribution of researchers by sector and by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1999(1)
HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR GOVERNMENT SECTOR BUSINESS ENTERPRISE SECTOR TOTAL RESEARCHERS
(2)

Belgium Denmark Germany(3) Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg(4) Netherlands Austria Portugal
(3)

31

Finland Sweden United Kingdom

Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Men

: : 36,0 33,5 37,5 24,2 83,7 73,0 75,3 69,3 53,4 41,9 35,9 15,4 54,4 50,5 11,0 8,2 : : 65,9 43,8 65,7 64,4 47,6 26,6 98,1 97,1 93,7 88,3

: : 32,0 21,4 23,2 13,7 8,5 9,9 15,8 12,7 15,0 12,7 15,8 16,8 26,0 15,5 89,0 91,8 : : 12,5 6,1 27,1 17,3 17,1 11,2 1,9 2,9 6,3 11,7

: : 32,0 45,0 39,4 62,1 7,8 17,2 8,9 17,9 31,6 45,4 48,3 67,8 19,6 34,0 : : : : 21,6 50,1 7,2 18,3 35,3 62,2 : : : :

7 20 36 218 12 17 37 77 56 150 2 6 26 71

5 25 10 13 12 32 9 17 54 100

: : 350 990 616 641 066 410 710 860 320 654 247 201 328 683 82 195 : : 830 386 974 839 686 106 747 096 677 506

It is important to interpret this table closely with the data in Figure 1.6.a. For example, we can now see that the high percentage of women in GOV in Portugal is representative of just one quarter of Portugal's women researchers. The interface between the HES and GOV sectors in the context of national R&D systems vary from country to country. For example, a researcher in the HES in Germany or France may nonetheless be a civil servant. In other countries, key characteristics of research institutions such as source of funding, performance, management and emp-loyment status may all pertain clearly to the same sector. The significance of the BES as an employer of researchers is highly diverse both between the sexes and between countries.

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: FR, IE (HES), FI, UK: 2000; AT: 1998 (2) Researchers in PNP not included (3) FTE as exception to HC (4) Data provisional


Table 1.1.b

Distribution of researchers by sector and by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2000(1)
Bulgaria and Romania have different patterns of researchers from the other Candidate Countries, since they are the only countries where less than four in every ten of researchers are concentrated in the HES. In Bulgaria, researchers are more likely to be in the GOV sector and in Romania, half of all researchers, both men and women, work in the BES. In Iceland, Norway and Switzerland although the gender differences are quite pronounced, the distributions in each country are all different.

HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR

GOVERNMENT SECTOR

BUSINESS ENTERPRISE SECTOR

TOTAL RESEARCHERS

(2)

Bulgaria

32

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: CZ, HU, LT, NO, RO, SK: 2001; IS: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) Researchers in PNP not included

Women Men Switzerland Women Men Cyprus Women Men Czech Republic Women Men Estonia Women Men Hungary Women Men Iceland Women Men Israel Women Men Latvia Women Men Lithuania Women Men Malta Women Men Norway Women Men Poland Women Men Romania Women Men Slovakia(2) Women Men Slovenia Women Men

18,3 28,3 57,4 42,6 43,3 44,3 49,5 39,5 73,7 74,1 67,4 63,0 40,8 36,0 : : 67,9 64,0 71,6 70,2 : : 55,2 39,1 74,3 71,6 24,4 27,5 54,7 48,6 43,0 47,3

69,0 60,8 2,1 2,4 28,9 22,2 31,6 25,3 17,9 12,6 19,7 17,5 36,0 28,4 : : 13,8 12,4 23,2 23,4 : : 14,4 10,7 15,8 12,9 27,7 22,0 28,4 23,5 36,8 25,7

12,7 10,9 40,4 55,0 27,8 33,5 18,9 35,3 8,4 13,3 12,9 19,5 23,2 35,6 : : 18,3 23,6 5,2 6,3 : : 30,4 50,2 9,9 15,5 47,8 50,6 16,9 28,0 20,1 27,1

4 5 7 26

7 19 1 2 9 18 1

3 3 4 5

9 24 33 54 10 13 3 5 2 4

781 695 035 125 194 546 079 210 947 582 363 988 850 813 : : 033 082 801 412 : : 811 917 564 590 107 490 817 768 340 118


Table 1.2

Number of researchers in PNP sector by sex; percentage women; FR; RSEs in PNP as a percentage of RSEs in all sectors in available countries, HC, 2000(1)
The Private non-profit sector (PNP) has fewer researchers than the other sectors. On the other hand, for most of the countries that report these data, with the only exceptions of the Czech Republic and Slovenia, we can see that women are better represented as researchers here than in the HES and the GOV.

PERCENTAGE WOMEN Denmark Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total 45

PNP AS A FEMINISATION %AGE OF ALL RATIO SECTORS (2) 83 1,5 0,7 0,9 0,3 0,3 0,3 1,8 1,2 1,4 1,2 0,5 0,6 10,6 14,0 12,6 1,1 0,9 1,0 0,3 0,6 0,5 6,7 6,5 6,6 0,8 1,2 1,1 1,1 0,7 0,9 6,9 2,9 4,2 0,1 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,8 2,0 1,6

ABSOLUTE NUMBERS 115 138 253 37 46 83 708 953 661 71 117 188 301 261 562 145 304 449 16 35 51 14 38 52 54 229 283 22 19 41 63 54 117 4 1 5 10 14 24 18 86 104

Greece

45

80

Spain

43

74

1

Austria

38

61

Portugal

37

58

1 2 3

Finland

32

48

Bulgaria

31

46

Cyprus

27

37

Czech Republic

19

24

Estonia

54

116

Iceland

54

117

Latvia

80

400

33

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to reference year: AT, FI (PNP) (1998); EL; PT; IS (1999); CZ (2001) (2) Data for other sectors are for 1999, except AT (1998); FI, BG, CY, EE, LV, SI (2000) and CZ, HU, LT (2001) (3) FTE instead of HC

Lithuania(3)

42

71

Slovenia

17

21


Box 1
Compound Annual Growth Rates
In order to measure how much a group of people has increased or decreased in a given period there are a number of possible methods, which depend on the type of growth. The growth of graduates or researchers over a period of several years is not necessarily linear. In fact it is likely to be compounded (or indeed diminished) by growth (or decline) from the previous year(s) and is subject to changing trends during the period in question. The value of the compound annual growth rate is therefore that it takes these effects into account and then smoothes the variation over time to yield a rate that is relevant in a medium- to long-term perspective. It also provides an approximation for the annual linear growth rate within a short period. The formula is the following:

Where:

y is the final year of observation (for example 2001) x is the initial year of observation (for example 1998) Py is the population in year y Px is the population in year x

34

The Compound Annual Growth Rate has political, social and economic relevance because it allows decision-makers to monitor the performance of the sector over time and provides the possibility of comparing sub-groups. It should however be borne in mind that the results for men and women only tell us about growth during the period ­ and not about increase or decrease in the absolute number of people. It is therefore possible, especially in a climate of rapid change, to see higher growth rates for one sex (usually the minority group), but a greater increase in absolute numbers for the other sex.


Figure 1.7.a

Compound annual growth rate of researchers in HES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1998-2001(1)

% Luxembourg
(4)

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60
55,6 56,0 56,3

Portugal Spain Sweden EU-15 Netherlands
(2) (3) -0,1

11,1 9,6 8,4 9,2 8,2 7,6 4,9 3,0 8,1

8,0 4,6 3,1 1,6 6,5

Italy Belgium
(5)

6,4 3,7 2,6 6,3 3,5 2,4 5,8 3,0 1,5

The compound annual growth rates (see Box 1) enable us to appreciate the dynamics of each sector and to make a preliminary assessment of the progress towards gender equality in research. Growth for Luxembourg is high in the HES because there has only been a University since 2000. The outlook here is encouragingly positive for research and for women. Another way of assessing the progress towards gender equality is to extrapolate the number of years to a 50% balance, based on current trends. However, no firm methodology currently exists for undertaking such projections at cross-national level, in view of the diversity of R&D systems and rates of change.

United Kingdom Austria France Germany
(3) -0,1

2,6 1,6

5,7

4,7 2,9 2,1 3,8 0,7 1,8 2,6 3,2 -0,2 -1,1 -1,5

35

Finland Denmark

Women Total Men

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference years: BE: 19992001; FR, FI: 1999-2000; DK, ES, NL, UK: 19972000; LU: 2000-2001; PT: 1997-1999; AT: 19931998 (2) EU-15 estimate excludes EL and IE and includes data for 1993 for AT. Data for NL and DE in FTE. Above exceptions to reference years apply. CAGR based on average 2,1 years growth (3) FTE as exception to HC (4) Data provisional (5) Data not official


Figure 1.7.b

Compound annual growth rate of researchers in HES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1998-2001(1)

% Latvia

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

12,0

24,8 20,6 16,8 17,4

Romania Cyprus EU-15
(2)

12,8 10,2

12,0 15,1 16,3 8,0 4,6 3,1 7,8 -5,1 0,6 7,5 5,7 4,9 6,1 7,1 7,6 5,6 2,4 0,8 4,1 1,4 3,0 0,5 2,9 -0,2 -1,1 -0,5 3,3 5,1

In Figures 1.2.a and b we saw that the growth rates for ISCED 6 graduates are generally stronger than the European average in the Associated Countries. However, the increase in researchers in the HES appears to have more momentum in the Member States than in all but three of the Associated countries, even though the general trend here is positive. The economic data however indicate that this sector is flourishing. The total expenditure on R&D in the HES (HERD) for the Candidate Countries in this Figure increased from 225 million in 1997 to 357 million in 2000 ­ a compound annual growth rate of 16.6%. These figures also represent an increased share of gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) for all sectors from 14% in 1997 to 18% in 2000. In this favourable climate, the increase in researchers in the HES can be seen for all the Associated Countries, except for Bulgaria, although only Latvia can match the 16.6% economic growth.

Lithuania Slovenia Hungary Norway Slovakia
(3)

-0,4

Estonia Israel
(3)

-1,2

Czech Republic

Women Men Total

36

Bulgaria

-14,9 -14,6 -14,4

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference years: BG, SI: 19972000; CY: 1998-2000; CZ, LV, LT: 2000-2001; EE: 1999-2000; NO: 1997-2001 (2) EU-15 estimate: see footnotes for Figure 1.4.b (3) FTE as exception to HC


Figure 1.8.a

Compound annual growth rate of researchers in GOV by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-2000(1)
% -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
49,5

60
Researchers in Government institutions in most EU countries are also experiencing growth and again, the trend is generally stronger for women than for men. The context of this growth must be reviewed with the variable significance of the GOV sector across the Member States in mind. For example, in 1999, it performed as little as 3.4% of GERD in Sweden and as much as 27.9% in Portugal. The attractiveness of the sector is not necessarily the same in every country either. During the period 1998-2001, the estimated GOV expenditure on R&D (GOVERD) increased by just under 2 billion in the EU, although its share of the overall estimated expenditure on R&D (GERD) decreased from 14.8% to 13.5%. In Finland, where the FRs are the highest in Europe and where RSEs form an important part of the labour force there has been a sharp decline in the number of researchers during the period.
Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference years: LU: 2000-2001; DK, FR, FI: 1999-2000; IT: 1998-1999; AT: 1993-1998; PT: 19971999; UK: 1998-2000 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) Data provisional

France

39,2 35,0 29,9 26,9 23,5 13,7 8,7 6,7 10,2 5,4 2,8 4,9 1,9 1,0 4,5 2,5 1,6 4,4 3,4 2,9 1,4 0,1 -0,2 -10,3 -10,7 -10,9 -10,6 -10,5 -10,4

Portugal
(3)

Luxembourg

Spain

United Kingdom

Austria

Italy
(2)

Germany

Denmark

Women Total Men

37

Finland


Figure 1.8.b

Compound annual growth rate of researchers in GOV by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1998-2001(1)
% Czech Republic Cyprus Slovenia Hungary Norway Slovakia
(2)

-30

-20

-10

0

10
8,2 6,0 5,0 8,0 6,5 5,8 3,8 1,0 2,7

20

30

40

50

60
Government institutions in Bulgaria, Cyprus and Lithuania are crucial centres of performance among candidate countries, representing over 40% of R&D performance. In eight out of ten candidate countries (no data for Malta and Turkey), the share of total R&D performance executed in the GOV sector declined between 1997 and 2000, especially in Latvia and Lithuania. In Slovakia and Romania, the GOV performance remained the same during the period, but overall R&D performance declined. This economic background bears witness to a sector where there is a worrying decline in the numbers of researchers, both female and male, for the majority of countries.

-1,1

7,0 9,6

-0,8 -1,6 -2,8 -6,4 -5,1 -3,8 -7,1 -6,1 -5,2 -7,1 -7,1 -7,2 -7,5 -8,9 -10,3 -12,2 -13,2 -14,3

2,4 0,2 0,0

Romania Bulgaria Lithuania Estonia

Women Total Men

38

Latvia

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference years: BG, EE, LV, SI: 1997-2000; CY: 1998-2000; CZ, LT: 2000-2001; NO: 1997-2001 (2) FTE as exception to HC


Figure 1.9.a

Figure 1.9.b

Compound annual growth rate of researchers in BES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-1999(1)
-60 -40 -20 0 20
22,8

Compound annual growth rate of researchers in BES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1998-2001(1)
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
62,1

40

60

80

100

80

100

Lithuania
44,1

74,3 84,4

Portugal

22,1 21,9 18,7

Cyprus
7,2 5,7 5,3 5,1 8,6 9,9 2,1

32,0 29,0

Spain

11,4 9,9 12,1

Norway

Finland

8,6 7,8 6,4

Women Total Men

Hungary

Italy
-0,7

0,5

Slovenia

-0,2 -1,1 -0,9 -1,2 -1,3 -6,7

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference years: IT, FI: 1999-2000 (2) FTE as exception to HC

Czech Republic

Latvia
-44,3

-28,0

In 2000, R&D expenditure in the BES (BERD) as a percentage of GDP was an estimated 1.26% in the EU-15, an average annual real growth rate of 4.3% since 1995 (European Commission, 2003). This general increase in BERD was highest in Finland (16.1%) and lowest in Italy (1.7%). It is borne out by an overall increase in the numbers of BES researchers, particularly women. During 1997-2000 there was only decline in Romania and Slovakia for R&D expenditure in the BES. Among four Accession Countries, there was a decline in the numbers of researchers regardless of the increased expenditure, but no common gender pattern. Lithuania's extreme growth corresponds, in absolute numbers, to 95 new women researchers and 157 new men researchers.

Slovakia

(2)

-8,6 -8,1 -7,8 -15,3 -18,0 -20,4 -17,1 -16,0 -15,2 -29,3 -22,1 -18,1

Bulgaria

Romania

Women Total Men

Estonia

39

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference years: BG, SI: 1997-2000; CY: 1998-2000; CZ, LV, LT: 2000-2001; EE: 1999-2000; NO: 1997-2001 (2) FTE as exception to HC


Gender differences 40 across scientific fields


2. Gender differences across scientific fields
The value of looking more closely at different scientific disciplines Educational choices are made in a gendered environment under the influence of factors such as peer pressure and teacher preference. These choices impact on the career possibilities of women and men. Probably the most highlighted difference is the lack of women in engineering professions. It is therefore important for analysts and policy makers to have a clear idea of how well research is capitalising upon knowledge intensity in certain fields. The indicators presented in this Chapter refer to horizontal segregation, in this case, the dissimilarity in the distributions of the sexes across scientific fields. Studies on segregation in the European labour market have found that existing overall segregation is mostly due to high levels of horizontal segregation (Blackburn et al., 2002). This means that the different distributions of men and women in employment are due to differences across fields of employment, rather than in seniority. This may or may not be the case for research ­ the data currently available do not lend themselves easily to such an analysis. Nevertheless, we can start to get an understanding of the significance of horizontal dissimilarities1 by looking at differences in given parts of the R&D system. Furthermore, the diversity in the percentage of women in each sector and country and the small numbers involved for some countries2 must be kept in mind when drawing conclusions at national or European level. Common patterns between education and research for many countries The results presented here reveal that not only are gender differences evident, especially among Member States from several perspectives, but that they follow the stereotypical patterns that can be witnessed in the labour market at large. Alongside the lack of women in engineering, there are high concentrations of women in Health and Medical fields, in Humanities and in the Social Sciences in many countries. This is the case for both higher education and research. In many countries the share of women is also high in Agricultural and Natural Sciences. Some countries, for example Bulgaria and Latvia, stand out as having quite individual gender profiles. There are data gaps for the Member States in GOV that hinder the possibility of making a fuller analysis and of calculating any EU estimates, but women appear more likely to be undertaking S&E3 research in GOV than in the HES in the Associated Countries. However, the GOV sector is smaller than the HES and the BES and not always as well resourced in many of these
1

41

2 3

It should be borne in mind, however, that a uniform distribution of the sexes across scientific fields is not necessarily realistic or beneficial to women Especially Luxembourg, Cyprus, Estonia and Malta. Here the term `S&E' refers to the combination of the two fields of science NS and ET


countries. Romania is the only country where women are more likely than men to be undertaking S&E research ­ and this is only true in the HES sector. Interestingly, in the BES, where men are in a sharp majority, the distributions of women and men across economic activities are remarkably homogenous. Is there change afoot? It is only possible from the available data to make a crude analysis for three Member States and ten Associated Countries where the data broken down by field of science were available for either 1999 or 2000 and then for either 2000 or 2001 in the HES. In Denmark, Germany and Estonia in both Natural Sciences and Engineering , there was change of less than 1% in the percentages of women. This was also the case for Natural sciences alone in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Iceland and Israel. In Czech Republic, Lithuania, Norway and Slovenia, the percentage of women increased by more than 1% in S&E, and in Engineering by 3.1%, 4.1% and 5% in Cyprus, Lithuania and the United Kingdom respectively. There was a small decline in the proportion of women S&E researchers in Slovakia. For the remaining fields of science, there were minor increases in the order of one or two percent in almost every case, with more significant increases in the Humanities for Czech Republic, Lithuania and Slovenia. The proportion of women researchers in Agricultural sciences in Israel also increased

from 10% to 14%. In the other fields of science, the only exceptions to this positive trend are to be found in Medical sciences in the United Kingdom, Czech Republic and Slovakia. Also, in Lithuania, the proportion of women researchers in Agricultural Sciences declined from 50% to 39%. So, the gradual increase in the proportion of women researchers seems to be evident across most fields of science for the Czech Republic, Lithuania and Slovenia between 1999 and 2000/2001 but is otherwise barely discernible for most countries.

42


Table 2.1.a

Percentage of ISCED 6 graduates who are women by broad field of study in EU Member States, 2001(1)
Percentage Women Belgium Denmark(2) Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom EU-15(3)
EDUCATION HUMANITIES AND AR TS SCIENCE, AGRICULTURE & MATHEMATICS VETERINARY AND COMPUTING HEALTH AND SOCIAL SER VICES ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING & CONSTRUCTION SOCIAL SCIENCES, BUSINESS AND LAW

54,5 X 41,7 : 54,3 50,0 50,0 : : 62,1 66,4 72,2 65,6 55,2 55,4

31,1 50,6 45,2 : 45,4 56,5 54,3 57,9 31,5 51,4 64,2 45,6 44,0 46,4 48,9

33,6 32,6 26,8 : 44,6 39,3 42,7 47,7 25,5 35,6 49,8 37,4 33,0 38,9 35,7

31,2 46,6 52,5 : 33,3 56,5 36,8 56,0 32,8 51,1 56,1 39,2 48,4 39,6 46,5

39,6 47,5 45,5 : 48,7 57,0 60,3 66,3 41,8 71,9 64,9 62,9 52,7 51,6 49,0

15,4 23,7 11,8 : 23,2 26,8 22,2 34,4 13,8 13,0 39,1 21,2 24,1 18,8 20,6

35,0 41,7 32,1 : 44,0 42,4 49,1 46,0 37,2 39,4 46,1 50,9 41,1 40,2 39,3

Source: Eurostat, Education Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DK, FR, IT, FI: 2000 (2) Humanities and arts includes education (3) EU-15: estimate excludes EL, LU. Above exceptions to reference year apply

Although women outnumber men only in the field of Education for the EU-15 average, they enjoy more or less equal numbers of ISCED 6 graduates as men in Humanities & Arts, Health & Social Services and Agriculture & Veterinary Sciences. An estimated 41.4% of university graduates in Science, Mathematics or Computing subjects in 2000 were women, so the average of 35.7% is less than we would have expected. Furthermore, the numbers of these graduates appear to have fallen from 105 000 in 2000 to 90 000 in 2001.

43

Among engineering graduates the percentage of women was 20.8% in 2001 and 20.2% in 2000 ­ a close match for the EU-15 average of 20.6%. However, there was in real terms a decrease in head count from 1 800 (in 2000) to an estimated 1 200 (in 2001) women graduating in Engineering at ISCED 6 level. In some countries there are signs that this "hard science bottleneck" between ISCED 5 and ISCED 6 graduates might be disappearing. In Science, Mathematics and Computing in Denmark, Spain, Austria and Portugal there are higher proportions of women graduates at ISCED 6 than at ISCED 5. For Engineering, this can also be witnessed in France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and the UK.


Table 2.1.b

Percentage of ISCED 6 graduates who are women by broad field of study in Associated Countries, 2001(1)
Percentage Women Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Slovakia Slovenia
EDUCATION HUMANITIES AND AR TS SCIENCE, AGRICULTURE & MATHEMATICS VETERINARY AND COMPUTING HEALTH AND SOCIAL SER VICES ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING & CONSTRUCTION SOCIAL SCIENCES, BUSINESS AND LAW

43,8 50,0 63,0 60,7 : 75,6 66,7 : : 54,5 44,8 81,3

43,9 100 50,0 35,7 41,9 : 42,3 50,0 60,0 0 46,8 48,5 36,7 51,1

45,6 66,7 24,4 31,8 26,1 : 44,2 44,4 45,2 : 9,1 44,6 45,0 43,4

51,9 31,3 50,0 30,9 : 48,1 100 100 0 36,9 43,9 38,5 69,2

51,9 50,9 64,8 38,2 66,7 63,3 43,8 : 40,7 47,0 54,2 57,5

27,6 27,1 0 24,0 : 28,6 28,6 30,0 0 13,9 19,6 28,6 22,8

40,3 100 42,0 50,0 42,6 100 58,6 66,7 70,5 : 39,6 44,4 46,7 63,3

Source: Eurostat, Education; Israel Central Bureau of Statistics & Council for Higher Education Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: IL: 1999; CY: 2000

In Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania and Romania a majority of graduates from higher education (ISCED 5+6) programmes in Science, Mathematics or Computing are women. This is reflected in the composition of PhD graduates in the same subject. Bulgaria also had the highest proportion of women engineering graduates in 2000 (39.7%) and in 2001 (35.5%), and in Estonia, Lithuania and Poland about a third of engineering graduates from ISCED 5 programmes were women. The overall pattern for ISCED 6 graduates visible in Member States remains discernible here, whereby there are higher proportions of women graduates in Humanities & Arts, Health & Social Services and Agriculture & Veterinary Sciences. Women remain a minority among successful engineering PhDs in all countries.

44

In Norway, where 60% of all university graduates are women, only in the field of Education are there more than 50% women graduates from ISCED 6. The proportion of women graduates in Science, Mathematics & Computing was 30.8% in 2000 and 29.7% in 2001 for ISCED 5 and ISCED 6 combined. It therefore appears from this table that Norwegian women are dropping out of studying in these fields in the national system at ISCED 6 level more sharply than men.


Figure 2.1.a

Distribution of ISCED 6 graduates across the broad fields of study by sex in EU Member States, 2001(1)
Ireland Women Ireland Men France Women France Men Belgium Women Belgium Men United Kingdom Women United Kingdom Men Denmark Women Denmark Men Sweden Women Sweden Men Spain Women Spain Men EU-15 Women(2) EU-15 Men Italy Women Italy Men Netherlands Women Netherlands Men Portugal Women Portugal Men Austria Women Austria Men Finland Women Finland Men Germany Women Germany Men 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
(2)

Science, mathematics & computing Engineering, manufacturing & construction Agriculture & Veterinary Health & social services Humanities & Arts, Social Sciences, Business & Law, Education

Percentage distribution of ISCED 6 graduates across the fields of study, by sex
Source: Eurostat, Education Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DK, FR, IT, FI: 2000 (2) EU-15 estimate excludes EL, LU. Exceptions to reference year apply as above

45

Putting the results from Table 2.1.a into perspective, where ISCED 6 graduates in some fields of study tend to be dominated by one or the other sex, we can now see that the distributions of men and women graduates across the possible fields are also gendered. Only Agriculture & Veterinary Sciences appear immune from this effect. Men graduates are consistently more likely than women graduates to be graduating from Engineering programmes and, with the only exceptions of Belgium and Spain, from Science, Mathematics & Computing programmes. Conversely, women graduates are consistently more likely than men graduates to be graduating from Humanities & Arts and Health & Social Services programmes.


Figure 2.1.b

Distribution of ISCED 6 graduates across the broad fields of study by sex in Associated Countries, 2001(1)
Latvia Women Latvia Men Israel Women Israel Men Slovakia Women Slovakia Men Czech Republic Women Czech Republic Men EU-15 Women(2) EU-15 Men(2) Slovenia Women Slovenia Men Bulgaria Women Bulgaria Men Lithuania Women Lithuania Men Poland Women Poland Men Hungary Women Hungary Men Estonia Women Estonia Men Norway Women Norway Men 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Science, mathematics and computing Engineering, manufacturing and construction Agriculture & Veterinary Health and social services Humanities & Arts, Social Sciences, Business & Law, Education

Percentage distribution of ISCED 6 graduates across the fields of study, by sex
Source: Eurostat, Education; Israel Central Bureau of Statistics & Council for Higher Education Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: IL: 1999 (2) EU-15 estimate excludes EL, LU. Exceptions to reference year apply as per Figure 2.1.a

46

In line with the relatively high proportion of women graduates from Science, Maths & Computing in Bulgaria, Poland and Slovakia, we can see that women graduates are more likely than men graduates in these countries to be graduating in this field. However, the proportion of men graduating from ISCED 6 engineering programmes in all the Associated Countries is at least twice that of women, for most countries. Equally, with the only exceptions of Bulgaria and Estonia the proportion of women graduating from Humanities & Arts and Health & Social Services programmes, is higher than that of men.


Table 2.2.a

Percentage of researchers who are women by field of science in HES in EU Member States, HC, 1999(1)
Percentage Women Belgium Denmark(5) Germany Greece Spain France(3) Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands(4) Austria Portugal(3) Finland Sweden United Kingdom
(2)

NATURAL SCIENCES

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGIES

MEDICAL SCIENCES

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

SOCIAL SCIENCES

HUMANITIES

29,5 22,9 18,1 : : 29,4 : 31,0 50,0 19,7 18,2 48,6 34,4 30,5 30,6

20,0 12,2 11,3 : : 15,2 : 13,4 13,7 8,9 28,7 22,4 19,0 13,2

30,1 35,6 34,1 : : 32,4 : 22,9 50,0 37,0 31,9 49,7 52,0 51,2 48,1

25,1 44,7 31,5 : : : : 24,3 25,7 30,6 44,0 36,2 40,9 35,5

32,4 26,8 23,5 : : 39,8 : 26,7 37,5 29,2 29,9 48,7 47,0 43,3 42,8

35,9 37,1 35,2 : : X : 41,5 66,7 31,2 37,2 X 50,6 43,7 40,3

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DK, DE, FR, UK: 2000; AT: 1998 (2) Data not official. Estimates made from BE-FL for 2001 and BE-FR for 2000 (3) SS includes H (4) FTE as exception to HC (5) Definition of HES coverage differs slightly from Annex Table 1.2.a

47

In Chapter 1 it was clear that women are already under-represented in all sectors of research. Here we can see that the low percentages of women researchers are reflected in some of the main fields of science in the Higher Education sector. These low proportions of women are found in engineering for every single country and corroborate the low proportions of women engineers among ISCED 6 graduates. In fact, there is only a majority of women researchers in the HES Finland and Sweden in Medical Sciences and Humanities, which are generally the most feminised fields. The percentages of women in Social Sciences seem to be very similar to the overall percentage of women researchers in many countries.


Table 2.2.b

Percentage of researchers who are women by field of science in HES in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000(1)
Percentage Women Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway(2) Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia
NATURAL SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGIES MEDICAL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES

45,3 16,3 34,3 33,3 : 17,5 11,8 35,2 37,9 : 23,5 33,8 36,4 33,2 30,6

15,8 16,7 26,9 23,8 : 41,0 12,1 34,9 24,5 : 17,4 15,8 34,3 33,9 18,8

47,2 0 34,8 55,7 : 41,1 38,1 78,4 55,2 : 44,7 43,3 51,5 50,8 51,7

0 0 36,3 45,7 : 46,7 13,6 59,0 39,3 : 34,0 33,1 24,5 : 51,4

41,4 33,7 39,3 51,6 : 43,6 30,3 41,9 57,1 : 39,4 37,9 22,8 50,5 41,4

47,7 40,9 38,7 59,2 : 36,2 35,6 79,3 66,5 : 40,4 33,0 27,3 49,9 48,9

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: IL, LT, NO, PL: 2001; IS, LV: 1999 (2) HC as exception to FTE

For six countries (Bulgaria, Cyprus, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania and Slovakia), it can be seen that the average percentage of researchers that are women in the HES presented in Figure 1.6.b is hiding marked differences between fields of science. In fact, the average percentage of women from Figure 1.6.b is at least five points away from any of the percentages for the fields of science here. This variation is less evident in the Member States.

48


Figure 2.2.a

Distribution of researchers across the fields of science in HES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1999(1)
Women
France Portugal Belgium
(3) (3) (2)

Men

Finland United Kingdom Denmark
(5)

Italy Sweden Germany Austria Netherlands
(4)

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DK, DE, FR, UK: 2000; AT: 1998 (2) Data not official. Estimates made from BE-FL for 2001 and BE-FR for 2000 (3) SS includes H (4) FTE as exception to HC (5) Definition of HES coverage differs slightly from Annex Table 1.2.a

Natural sciences Engineering and technologies Medical sciences Agricultural sciences Social sciences Humanities

49

In the HES sector in EU Member States, the proportion of men performing research in the Engineering & Technology field is twice as high as that of women in all countries for which data are available. On the other hand, there is a lower proportion of women researchers in Medical Sciences compared to the proportion of women graduating from Health science programmes at ISCED 6 in a number of countries. Without further study it is not possible to say whether these women are in another sector or professional field or whether they are working in technical as opposed to research occupations.


Figure 2.2.b

Distribution of researchers across the fields of science in HES by sex in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000(1)
Women
Romania Czech Republic Slovakia Iceland Latvia Estonia Bulgaria Poland Slovenia Lithuania Cyprus Israel Norway
(2)

Men

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: IL, LT, NO, PL: 2001; IS, LV: 1999 (2) HC as exception to FTE

Natural sciences Engineering and technologies Medical sciences

Only in Romania is there a higher proportion of women researchers than men researchers working in S&E research. This is true for both Natural Sciences and Engineering, but it is an isolated case.

Agricultural sciences Social sciences Humanities

50


Table 2.3.a

Percentage of researchers who are women by field of science in GOV in EU Member States, FTE, 1999(1)
Percentage Women Belgium Denmark(3) Germany Greece Spain(2) France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom
NATURAL SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGIES MEDICAL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES

HUMANITIES

: 24,3 18,9 : 35,3 : 34,8 : : : 26,8 : : : :

: 19,7 13,9 : 30,9 : 28,0 : : : 16,0 : : : :

: 43,3 34,1 : 42,1 : 71,8 : : : 38,4 : : : :

: 35,7 28,1 : 37,9 : 14,9 : : : 20,4 : : : :

: 41,1 39,6 : 44,5 : 33,3 : : : 32,9 : : : :

: 42,1 : : X : 0 : : : 35,2 : : : :

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1) Exceptions to the reference year: DK: 2000; AT: 1998; ES: 2001 (2) SS includes H (3) Definition of GOV coverage differs slightly from Annex Table 1.3.a

51

As a general rule, the percentages of women researchers in Engineering are higher in the Associated Countries than in the EU Member States for both the HES and the GOV. However, the percentages of S&E women are higher in GOV for the three countries for which data are available for both sectors (Denmark, Germany and Austria). The same is also true for Medical and Social Sciences but Agricultural Sciences are more feminised in the HES. This may be a reflection of the organisation and dynamics of R&D in each the HES and the GOV in these countries.


Table 2.3.b

Percentage of researchers who are women by field of science in GOV in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000(1)

Percentage Women Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway(2) Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia

NATURAL SCIENCES

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGIES

MEDICAL SCIENCES

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

SOCIAL SCIENCES

HUMANITIES

52,0 56,0 28,3 29,6 : 24,4 : 65,2 41,1 : 27,9 : 48,5 41,3 34,6

34,1 15,9 14,0 34,0 : 43,3 : 49,3 28,3 : 15,8 : 41,2 30,5 30,3

53,2 36,8 49,2 72,0 : 47,3 : 56,9 55,6 : 47,4 : 69,7 58,6 61,0

50,1 24,8 48,3 45,3 : 18,3 : 54,2 50,0 : 35,4 : 33,3 49,4 41,5

53,5 28,4 40,5 61,1 : 38,1 : 24,5 62,3 : 41,3 : 59,1 54,8 51,5

58,2 63,0 44,6 75,0 : 41,7 : 60,0 62,2 : 44,8 : 47,5 34,5 44,4

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1) Exceptions to the reference year: LT, NO: 2001; IS, LV: 1999 (2) HC as exception to FTE

52

Iceland and Norway fit well with the pattern visible among the Member States whereby all the fields in GOV except Agriculture have higher proportions of women than in the HES. For the other Associated Countries there is less definition to the pattern, although the percentages of women are higher for most countries and fields as we would have expected from Figure 1.6.b. It is important to recall that in many Associated Countries the GOV sector is relatively small in terms of performance. Furthermore, the GOV sector is undergoing economic restructuring in many countries and so performance is not always increasing as rapidly as in the HES and BES.


Figure 2.3.a

Distribution of researchers across the fields of science in GOV by sex in EU Member States, FTE, 1999(1)
Women Ireland Germany Spain
(2)

Men

Denmark(3) Austria
0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DK: 2000; AT: 1998; ES: 2001 (2) ES: SS includes H (3) Definition of GOV coverage differs slightly from Annex Table 1.3.a

Natural sciences Engineering and technologies Medical sciences Agricultural sciences Social sciences Humanities

It is clear that in Ireland and Germany, more than half of the women researchers in GOV are working in S&E fields. Furthermore, in Ireland women researchers appear more likely than men researchers to be working in either Natural or Engineering Sciences in the GOV sector. However, we also know from Table 2.3.a that they are still in a minority compared to men, particularly in Germany.

53


Figure 2.3.b

Distribution of researchers across the fields of science in GOV by sex in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000(1)

Women Latvia Romania Bulgaria Lithuania Czech Republic Slovakia Iceland Cyprus Slovenia Estonia Norway
(2)

Men

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LT, NO: 2001; IS, LV: 1999 (2) HC as exception to FTE

Natural sciences Engineering and technologies Medical sciences Agricultural sciences Social sciences Humanities

54

In the GOV, Romanian women researchers are less likely than their male counterparts to be working in S&E fields, as they are in the HES, but those in Latvia, Iceland, and Norway are. At least 40% of women researchers in GOV in all these countries, except Estonia and Norway, are working in S&E.


Table 2.4.a

Table 2.4.b

Percentage of researchers who are women by NACE category in BES in EU Member States, HC, 1999(1)
Percentage Women Belgium Denmark(3) Germany(2) Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland(3) Sweden United Kingdom
MANUFACTURING REAL ESTATE, RENTING AND BUSINESS ACTIVITIES OTHERS

Percentage of researchers who are women by NACE category in BES in Associated Countries, HC, 2001(1)
Percentage Women Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania Slovakia(2) Slovenia
MANUFACTURING REAL ESTATE, RENTING AND BUSINESS ACTIVITIES OTHERS

: 21,9 9,0 21,4 17,7 21,0 : 15,3 : : 7,8 20,8 21,8 : :

: 16,8 14,8 22,5 22,2 17,9 : 26,7 : : 13,3 27,1 20,8 : :

: 20,3 13,6 30,8 28,5 21,4 : 23,1 : : 8,7 28,5 20,4 : :

58,2 18,9 12,1 40,1 27,5 13,5 : 44,9 46,6 : 17,0 : 39,7 27,0 30,2

31,8 29,7 21,1 25,6 20,4 31,4 : 51,9 9,9 : 20,2 : 32,0 27,3 29,8

42,4 15,2 26,3 33,7 18,7 14,9 : 78,2 28,6 : 21,2 : 47,9 34,1 23,7

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: FR, IT, FI: 2000; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) Definition of BES coverage differs from Annex Table 1.4.a

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: BG, CY, EE, LT, SI: 2000; IS: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC

55

The recommendation of the Frascati Manual (OECD, 2002) is to use the NACE classification to observe the fields in which BES researchers are working. It categorises businesses by their main economic activity and does not therefore necessarily tell us exactly what the researchers are doing, so it is not possible to make any links with the education data. Compared with the national patterns visible in Figures 1.6.a and 1.6.b, it could be argued that women are slightly less likely to be concentrated in companies where the main economic activity is Manufacturing or Real Estate, Renting or Business Activities (which includes research). Looking at Annexes 2.4.a and 2.4.b we can see that, in most countries, there are higher proportions of women researchers in companies whose main economic activity is pharmaceuticals, but they are hidden when Manufacturing is aggregated. In Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania and Slovenia the highest percentage of women is found in Manufacturing. The BES in Latvia was highlighted as having the highest percentage (56%) of women out of any sector in Europe in 2000 (see Figure 1.6.b) and boasts no less than 73% women researchers in companies whose main economic activity is pharmaceuticals.


Figure 2.4.a

Distribution of researchers across NACE categories in BES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1999(1)
Women
0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 0% 25%

Men
50% 75% 100%

Germany Finland

(2)

Manufacturing Real estate, renting and business activities Others

France
(3)

Spain Austria Italy Denmark
(3)

Portugal Greece

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: FR, IT, FI: 2000; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) Definition of BES coverage differs from Annex Table 1.4.a

Figure 2.4.b

Distribution of researchers across NACE categories in BES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2001(1)
Women
0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 0% 25%

Men
50% 75% 100%

Lithuania Hungary Slovenia Romania Bulgaria Estonia Czech Republic Slovakia(2) Norway Cyprus Iceland Latvia
Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: BG, CY, EE, LT, SI: 2000; IS: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC

Manufacturing Real estate, renting and business activities Others

56

Manufacturing is the category that employs the most part of BES researchers in the Member States as well as in Lithuania, Hungary, Slovenia, Romania and Bulgaria. Regardless of the representation of women, the patterns of distribution for each sex in the Member States, Norway, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia are strikingly similar.


Box 2
The Dissimilarity Index
The Dissimilarity Index (ID) provides a theoretical measurement of the percentage of women and men in a group who would have to move to another occupation to ensure that the proportions of women were the same across all the possible occupations. It can therefore be interpreted as the hypothetical distance from a balanced gender distribution across occupations, based upon the overriding proportion of women (NSF, 2000). The formula for the Dissimilarity Index is: Where: i denotes each occupation Fi is the number of women researchers in each occupation Mi is the number of men researchers in each occupation F is the total number of women researchers across all occupations M is the total number of men researchers across all occupations. The brackets || indicate that the absolute value is taken, but not the sign. For example, if we have three occupations, A, B and C with 17, 37 and 91 women and 108, 74, 182 men respectively, the overall proportion of women is 28.5%. We therefore need to calculate:

This means that 18% of researchers will have to change occupation in order to maintain the background proportion of 28.5% women in each occupation. The ID must be interpreted alongside the Feminisation Ratio (see Box 3), which will indicate which gender is in the majority. The maximum value is 1, which indicates the presence of only either women or men in each of the occupations. The minimum value of 0 indicates an equal distribution between women and men across occupations. If the same occupational categories are used for different countries, the ID yields a comparable and descriptive statistic that reflects the extent to which the two sexes are differently distributed. The results also depend on the number of categories. If more categories are used, the indicator will reflect greater variability in the distribution, which in turn will yield results indicating a higher level of segregation.

57


Table 2.5.a

Table 2.5.b

Index of Dissimilarity and Feminisation Ratio for researchers in HES in EU Member States, HC, 1999(1)
Index of Dissimilarity Belgium(2) Denmark(5) Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg(4) Netherlands(3) Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom 0,08 0,20 0,23 : : 0,12 : 0,18 0,18 0,21 0,12 0,20 0,23 0,17 Feminisation Ratio 42,1 38,9 34,4 : : 47,6 : 39,6 52,6 35,6 34,6 80,9 67,6 58,7 57,7

Index of Dissimilarity and Feminisation Ratio for researchers in HES in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000(1)
Index of Dissimilarity Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway(2) Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia 0,31 0,23 0,09 0,24 : 0,17 0,28 0,30 0,28 : 0,18 0,17 0,08 0,17 0,27 Feminisation Ratio 51,7 39,6 47,9 66,1 : 57,4 32,6 87,7 90,3 : 55,6 46,0 52,1 69,5 52,8

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DK, DE, FR, UK: 2000; AT: 1998 (2) Data not official. Estimates made from BE-FL for 2001 and BE-FR for 2000 (3) FTE as exception to HC (4) Numbers of RSEs too small to calculate the ID (5) Definition of HES coverage differs slightly from Annex Table 1.2.a

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: IL, LT, NO, PL: 2001; IS, LV: 1999 (2) HC as exception to FTE

58

Belgium and Romania have the lowest levels of dissimilarity across the fields of science in the HES and Bulgaria has the highest levels (see Box 2). In fact, in Belgium and Romania only 8% of RSEs would have to change field of science in order to achieve proportions of 28% and 40% women respectively throughout each of the six main fields of science. Likewise, 31% of researchers in Bulgarian universities would theoretically need to switch to another field of science in order to have a proportion of 35% women in each field. In parallel, it can be seen from the gender split that since men outnumber women, they are likely to form a larger part of the RSEs who would have to move.


Seniority in 59 academia and R&D


3. Seniority in academia and R&D
Seniority in academia and R&D In the first two Chapters, it has been seen how the overall patterns of the distribution of scientists and researchers are gendered according to the sectors of performance and to the fields of science. Furthermore, it has emerged that these patterns cannot be isolated from the different national contexts of R&D organisation, of the labour force and of education outcomes. However, although this information is valuable in terms of mapping women's participation and career choices, it still does not reveal whether women and men are on equal terms in R&D employment. This Chapter on the other hand, sets out to explore the vertical dimension. This tells us about the dissimilarity in the distributions of the sexes throughout a given hierarchical system, and can therefore be used to highlight differences in career opportunities and outcomes (Osborn et al., 2000). Although women and men study and work within the same infrastructures, case studies at institutional level have shown that they have different experiences when it comes to the reward and recognition systems (WennerÅs & Wold, 1997; Palomba, 2000). Furthermore, a US study has shown that vertical segregation is linked to gender bias in S&T productivity indicators, whereby senior men use their positions to claim authorship (Long, 2002). Eliminating vertical differences between women and men at European level is therefore central to attracting young women into research careers. The approach that has been taken in this Chapter is to look at levels of vertical concentration1 in academia and at vertical dissimilarity2 in each of the three R&D occupations (Researchers, Technicians and Auxiliary staff). From the European perspective, R&D and academia are the two domains where the necessary information is available and of sufficient quality. We have capitalised upon the data collected in national higher education surveys, which have several common questions. However, no formal methodology for harmonising these exists at present. The coverage of the grades presented here, and, more specifically, the identification of grade A (see Annex 5) has therefore been agreed for this publication by the Statistical Correspondents of the Helsinki Group on Women and Science. Further methodological work is necessary if more detailed analysis is to be undertaken. Here we are nevertheless able to obtain a preliminary overview of the professional advancement of women in universities and in R&D institutions, despite the differences between countries in the grading systems.
1

60

2

The term `concentration' here refers to the practice of comparing part(s), rather than the whole of the system. See Box 2 in Chapter 2.


Findings The Feminisation Ratios (see Box 3) are even lower for senior academic staff than they are for academic staff in general, and the percentage of women in the top grades never exceeds 21%. Men are three times more likely than women to obtain professorships or their equivalents in Europe. There are also high levels of vertical dissimilarity among R&D personnel in many countries, but the pattern varies across the sectors. The relationship between occupations seems to depend on the institutional sector and the group of countries. This is mostly due to low proportions of women as researchers and high proportions of women as auxiliary staff. It is not at present possible to examine whether this is due to gender differences in qualification in R&D, although, based upon the evidence from the HRST results, this is unlikely. The Feminisation Ratios of researchers and technicians are strongly and positively correlated (r=74%) in the HES and the BES in the Candidate Countries. On the other hand the same correlation in the HES for the Member States and Iceland is negative, although weaker (r=-36%). The findings in this Chapter support the conclusion in the chapter on differences across scientific fields (Chapter 2), that it is important to examine the summary data on R&D personnel and academic staff both horizontally and vertically in order to obtain a truly accurate analysis.

61

1

In "She Figures", the term `senior academic staff' is synonymous with the term `grade A'. A list of the grades that are included in grade A for each country can be found in Annex 5. In many countries, but not all, grade A is also synonymous with the title of "Full Professor".


Figure 3.1.a

Figure 3.1.b

Feminisation Ratio among senior academic staff (grade A) in EU Member States, HC, 2000(1)
30 30

Feminisation Ratio among senior academic staff (grade A) in Associated Countries, HC, 2001(1)
26,4

23,9

21,7

21,6

25

23,4

25

17,8

17,1

20

19,3

20

16,1

21,2 15,3

15,2

14,4

15,2

13,6

12,7

12,5

9,1

11,8 8,8

15

15

13,4

8,3

7,7

7,5

10

10

6,7

6,6

8,6 3,8

5

5

0
(2) (3) (2)

0

Portugal

Spain Finland France

Italy Greece Austria SwedenEU-15 BelgiumIreland Germany Kingdom Denmark Netherlands United

ay blic alta Latvia orw EU-15 Iceland Israel Repu Slovakia Cyprus M Bulgaria Poland Estonia N LithuaniaSlovenia Czech

(3)

(2)

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DE, IT, SE: 2001; BE, ES, PT: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) EU-15: estimate excludes LU. Above exceptions to reference year apply Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage & definitions

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: CY: 2000; MT: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) EU-15: estimate excludes LU. Exceptions to reference year from Figure 3.1.a apply Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage & definitions

There are only two Member States (Portugal and Finland) in the European Union where there are more than two women for every ten men in the top echelons of academia. Portugal is a special case because its university system is relatively new and in Finland gender balance in all areas of employment has been a priority policy action for many years. In six out of the fourteen Member States presented here (Denmark, Germany, Belgium, Ireland, the Netherlands and Austria) there is less than one woman for every ten men in the top grade of University staff. However, the EU average of grade A university staff who are women has crept up from 11.6% in 1998/1999 to 13.2% in 2000. The feminisation ratios for Iceland and Norway do not differ remarkably from the EU average.

62

2,3


Box 3
Vertical Concentration
The vertical dimension is the only dimension that tells us something about inequality between the sexes. This is because vertical concentration describes the relative intensity of women and men at identified points in a given hierarchical system. The two main indicators of vertical concentration presented in this booklet are the percentage of women (%) and the Feminisation Ratio (FRi). They each have slightly different meanings. Percentages A percentage tells us what we could expect if the denominator were standardised to 100. Throughout this publication, percentages are used in two ways: · the number of women in category i (Fi) among women and men combined (Ti) in category i Where the formula for the percentage (%) is expressed as (Fi/Ti)*100 · the number of women or men in category i (Fi) among the total number of women or men (F). Where the formula for the percentage (%) is expressed as (Fi/F)*100 The denominator always includes the numerator. By using different numerators and denominators it is possible to build up a fuller picture of situations. For a more accurate picture, it is always important to review the combined results of several related indicators, including the Feminisation Ratio (FRi). The Feminisation Ratio The Feminisation Ratio (FRi) denotes the number of women per 100 men: FRi = (Fi/Mi)*100 Where: Fi is the number of women in category i Mi is the number of men in category i So, if FRi = 100, there are equal numbers of women and men. Again, it is often best to regard the FRi alongside other indicators, such as the ID (see Tables 2.5.a and 2.5.b and Box 2).

63


Table 3.1.a

Table 3.1.b

Percentage of academic staff who are grade A by sex. Percentage of academic staff and grade A staff who are women, EU Member States, HC, 2000(1)
% GRADE A AMONG ACADEMIC STAFF % WOMEN ALL GRADES % WOMEN GRADE A

Percentage of academic staff who are grade A by sex. Percentage of academic staff and grade A staff who are women, Associated Countries, HC, 2001(1)
% GRADE A AMONG ACADEMIC STAFF % WOMEN ALL GRADES % WOMEN GRADE A

Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Netherlands(2) Austria Portugal(2) Finland Sweden United Kingdom

Women 3,9 2,9 2,2 11,4 5,9 12,8 2,2 15,1 2,5 3,4 4,1 8,4 11,7 3,7

Men 20,0 12,5 9,9 30,8 15,8 31,5 12,7 37,5 14,2 17,5 11,2 23,0 28,8 14,5

28,1 28,0 27,0 25,6 32,2 32,3 30,3 29,8 27,7 25,5 39,6 39,1 28,3 35,8

7,2 8,3 7,7 11,3 15,1 16,2 7,0 14,6 6,3 6,2 19,3 19,0 13,8 12,6

Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel(2) Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Slovakia Slovenia

Women 3,7 1,2 2,4 6,0 : 14,2 14,5 3,7 1,8 5,3 5,6 9,4 2,3 11,6

Men 13,1 10,7 14,1 20,9 : 43,7 40,0 17,5 12,0 21,0 20,4 21,2 15,4 31,5

43,4 25,8 34,0 42,6 34,6 29,9 24,6 55,4 47,5 8,3 35,7 32,8 36,2 25,4

17,8 3,7 8,1 17,5 : 12,0 10,6 20,9 11,8 2,2 13,3 17,7 7,9 11,1

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DE, IT, SE: 2001; BE, ES, PT: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage & definitions

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: CY: 2000; MT: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage & definitions

64

The first two columns in these Tables show the percentage of academic staff who are grade A for each sex. By calculating this percentage, the under-representation of women is disregarded. It is certainly alarming to see that in the European Union only 6.4% of academic women are reaching the top level in their professions, whereas this success is reserved for as many as 18.8% of male academics. These figures average out at 5.4% and 17.7% respectively for the Candidate Countries. The opportunities seem to be comparatively less discriminatory in France, Italy, Sweden and Poland ­ but even in these countries men are two and half times more likely than women to obtain a full professorship. This situation appears to be at its worst in Ireland, the Netherlands, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Lithuania and Slovakia where men are at least five times more likely than women to obtain full professorships. By comparing the indicators in each of the last two columns, we can see that the percentage of grade A staff who are women is consistently lower than the overall percentage of women among academic staff. These differences are lowest in Poland and highest in Cyprus.


Table 3.2

Percentage of grade A staff who are women by main field of science, all available countries, HC, 2001(1)
NATURAL SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY MEDICAL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES

Belgium(3) Denmark Germany France (4) Italy Netherlands(2) Austria Portugal(2)(5) Finland Sweden United Kingdom Iceland Israel(2) Norway Poland Slovakia(6) Slovenia

4,2 4,2 4,6 15,7 15,0 3,2 3,1 22,4 8,3 10,4 7,7 7,0 6,6 6,9 16,1 10,4 6,0

1,0 2,8 3,2 6,4 5,2 2,7 1,7 3,1 5,2 5,5 2,3 5,6 4,8 2,8 6,8 2,4 2,8

3,4 9,8 4,0 8,9 9,5 5,2 7,6 30,2 21,3 12,9 14,5 9,7 16,4 14,2 26,2 9,4 18,3

5,1 9,8 8,0 X 10,2 7,1 9,3 17,6 12,8 16,3 7,9 0,0 8,9 20,0 4,6 14,0

12,3 9,7 6,8 23,8 16,8 7,0 6,4 21,8 24,7 15,8 17,8 9,4 13,6 15,3 19,2 10,9 11,5

10,5 13,3 13,7 X 22,9 14,2 11,1 X 33,2 25,4 17,9 6,1 18,9 24,3 21,0 12,2 15,8

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: BE, DK, FR, NL, FI, UK: 2000; PT, IS: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) French-speaking community only (4) NS includes AS; SS includes H (5) SS includes H (6) H = Sciences of culture & arts; SS = SS + rest of H Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage & definitions

65

In Chapter 2, we saw that the overall indicators presented in Chapter 1 hide differences in the concentration of women across the fields of science. In this table, we can see that this is also the case for grade A university staff, among all the countries, although the low figures make it harder to discern. In Engineering and Technology, less than 7% of women are grade A staff. It seems that the highest concentration of professors in Europe are to be found in Finland (Humanities) and in Portugal (Medical Sciences), but even so, they represent less than a third of grade A staff in the field. The highest concentrations of women are to be found in the Social Sciences for the European Union countries and in Medical Sciences among Associated Countries.


Figure 3.2.a

Distribution of grade A staff across the fields of science by sex in EU Member States, HC, 2000(1)
Women France(4) Portugal(2)
(5)

Men

Italy Sweden United Kingdom Germany Denmark Netherlands(2) Austria Belgium
(3)

Finland
0% 25% 50% 75% 100% 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to reference year: DE, IT, SE: 2001; PT: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) French-speaking community only (4) NS includes AS; SS includes H (5) SS includes H Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage and definitions

Figure 3.2.b

Distribution of grade A staff across the fields of science by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2001(1)
Women Iceland(1) Israel(2) Poland Men

Natural sciences Engineering and technologies Medical sciences Agricultural sciences Social sciences Humanities

66

Slovakia(3) Norway Slovenia
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: IS:1999; LV: 2000 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) Slovakia: H = Sciences of culture & arts; SS = SS + rest of H Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage and definitions


Table 3.3.a
HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR Country
Belgium

GOVERNMENT SECTOR Distribution of women
: : : : : : 33,5 66,5 : 34,9 21,9 43,1 51,2 25,7 23,1 41,8 : 58,2 : : : 42,0 37,4 20,6 65,9 25,4 8,7 : : : 29,8 22,3 47,9 : : : 49,9 50,1 : : : : 33,7 27,0 39,3

BUSINESS ENTERPRISE SECTOR Distribution of women
: : : 30,8 42,6 26,5 : : : 38,4 18,4 43,2 32,7 34,6 32,7 38,9 : 61,1 55,7 24,3 20,0 46,0 29,7 24,3 : : : : : : 32,8 34,8 32,4 : : : 49,8 50,2 : : : : : : :

Occupation
Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others

Distribution of women
: : : 50,3 49,7 : 37,6 17,6 44,8 50,4 22,8 26,8 75,8 5,9 18,3 56,9 : 43,1 : : : : : : 87,5 0,0 12,5 : : : 44,8 25,1 30,2 : : : 66,1 33,9 : : : : : : :

Distribution of men
: : : 84,6 15,4 : 81,5 9,6 8,9 62,3 18,4 19,2 86,1 5,0 8,9 76,8 : 23,2 : : : : : : 89,3 10,7 0,0 : : : 83,3 8,3 8,4 : : : 74,7 25,3 : : : : : : :

Distribution of men
: : : : : : 63,8 36,2 : 34,6 17,5 47,9 62,4 18,6 19,0 62,5 : 37,5 : : : 45,2 36,3 18,5 74,6 11,3 14,1 : : : 47,5 18,8 33,7 : : : 71,0 29,0 : : : : 56,7 18,9 24,5

Distribution of men
: : : 43,2 41,1 26,5 : : : 48,5 35,2 16,2 38,6 41,5 19,9 48,3 : 51,7 66,0 23,8 10,2 42,5 41,3 16,2 : : : : : : 60,2 31,6 8,2 : : : 65,2 34,8 : : : : : : :

Distribution of R&D personnel across the occupations by sector and sex in EU Member States, HC, 2000(1)
In order to fully analyse these percentages, it is helpful to calculate the Index of Dissimilarity (see Box 2) across the occupations. For the countries and sectors with data in all three R&D occupations, the ID reveals that by far the highest levels of vertical dissimilarity occur in Germany and Austria's Higher Education sectors (44% and 39% respectively). In Germany, the dissimilarity is so pronounced that almost half of all R&D personnel would have to change occupation in order to replicate the overall average of 36% women in each activity. This is also the case for a quarter of R&D personnel in Greece and Austria (both 27%) in the BES. GOV is the only sector, where the ID is relatively low: 5% in Greece and 3% in Italy, although the United Kingdom has the highest ID at 23%. The main causes of this dissimilarity seem to be disproportionately high numbers of men who are researchers and high numbers of women who are auxiliary personnel.

Denmark

Germany(2)

Greece

Spain

France

Ireland

(2)

Italy

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Austria

Portugal

67

Finland

Sweden
United Kingdom

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LU: 2001; DK (BES), DE, EL, ES (BES), IE, IT, FI: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC


Table 3.3.b
HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR Country
Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania Slovakia(2) Slovenia

GOVERNMENT SECTOR Distribution of women
50,9 32,4 16,7 22,5 31,7 45,8 40,2 35,5 24,3 50,4 21,7 27,9 36,0 27,3 36,7 60,8 22,7 16,5 : : : 51,0 14,3 34,7 41,3 32,2 26,5 : : : : : : 47,6 28,0 24,4 65,5 18,6 15,9 49,3 33,4 17,4 56,6 22,3 21,1

BUSINESS ENTERPRISE SECTOR Distribution of women
49,3 34,0 16,7 35,5 23,0 41,4 25,1 43,5 31,4 42,5 32,4 25,1 40,8 45,0 14,2 56,4 25,5 18,1 : : : 51,5 24,6 23,9 53,4 26,1 20,5 : : : : : : 39,6 32,3 28,1 52,2 27,8 20,0 35,4 37,9 26,7 27,7 35,1 37,2

Occupation
Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others

Distribution of women
74,9 13,5 11,6 78,5 1,9 19,6 56,2 26,3 17,5 66,4 15,5 18,1 53,3 16,6 30,1 59,9 11,9 28,2 : : : 78,0 12,5 9,5 70,3 9,4 20,3 : : : : : : 71,8 13,6 14,6 67,5 11,0 21,5 78,7 18,7 2,6 59,0 11,0 30,0

Distribution of men
80,7 13,6 5,7 89,3 3,3 7,4 79,7 14,9 5,4 83,9 7,4 8,7 81,0 8,8 10,2 79,1 12,5 8,5 : : : 82,6 8,8 8,5 88,1 5,1 6,7 : : : : : : 87,2 8,1 4,8 81,6 6,9 11,5 90,9 7,1 2,1 79,9 9,8 10,3

Distribution of men
71,2 19,0 9,9 30,7 37,3 32,0 68,7 17,1 14,1 76,5 6,8 16,7 59,1 19,4 21,5 69,4 17,9 12,7 : : : 65,1 12,8 22,1 59,8 15,6 24,6 : : : : : : 65,7 18,6 15,7 74,4 15,1 10,6 73,9 15,5 10,6 65,7 17,0 17,3

Distribution of men
59,3 29,9 10,8 61,6 28,3 10,1 46,6 37,5 15,8 65,5 22,7 11,8 69,2 22,1 8,7 64,2 24,3 11,5 : : : 57,0 13,6 29,4 70,0 10,4 19,6 : : : : : : 54,0 26,1 20,0 59,8 15,3 25,0 53,4 33,5 13,1 35,7 27,9 36,4

Distribution of R&D personnel across the occupations by sector and sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2000(1)
The Czech Republic and Hungary both have IDs ranging from 22-29% across all three sectors and Estonia and Slovakia have IDs of 26% and 25% respectively in the GOV. The lowest vertical ID scores are to be found in Iceland and Slovenia in the GOV and the BES (both 9% and 8% respectively); in the HES for Bulgaria and Latvia (6% and 5%) and in the GOV in Romania (9%). It is most important to note that an above-average FR, which is largely the scenario in the Associated countries, is not necessarily indicative of vertical equality.

68

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LV (BES), LT: 2001; IS: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC


Box 4
How to read the Scatter Plots (Figures 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5)
The analysis of the relationship between the FR of researchers and FR of technicians is well illustrated by using scatter plots. Each country is positioned on the graph according to the combination of the values of the FRs for researchers and technicians. The X-axis refers to FR for researchers and the Y-axis refers to the FR for technicians. Data to the right hand side of the X-axis indicate the countries in which female researchers outnumber their male colleagues, while in countries to the left, the men researchers outnumber the women. The upper parts of the graphs indicate the countries where female technicians outnumber their male counterparts and the lower parts of the graphs show where male technicians outnumber their female counterparts. The graphs are therefore composed of four quadrants in which countries can be positioned. Each of the quadrants shows a `type' of situation: Female technicians outnumber male technicians Male researchers outnumber female researchers Female technicians outnumber male technicians Female researchers outnumber male researchers

FR Technicians

Male technicians outnumber female technicians Male researchers outnumber female researchers

Male technicians outnumber female technicians Female researchers outnumber male researchers

69

FR Researchers
The positions of the Member States are indicated in blue and the positions of the Associated Countries are indicated in


Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Scatter plot of the Feminisation Ratios of researchers and technicians in HES, all countries, HC 2000(1)

Scatter plot of the Feminisation Ratios of researchers and technicians in GOV, all countries, HC, 2000(1)

300

300 300

275

275
250 250

SK (2) LT

250

225 DK 200 AT

SK (2) LT EE

225 DK
200 200

BG

SK (2) LT EE

AT

175

LV HU PL

175

LV
CZ

LV

FR of technicians

FR of technicians

150

150 150

HU
HU

PL FI

PL
SI

RO

125 DE (2) 0 75 20 40

CZ FR RO

EL FI 60 ES BG 80 100 120 140

125
100 100 00 20 DE0(2) 2 UK CY 50 50

CZ FR RO DE (2) FR
40

EL
ESFI 80

100

SI IS

40 AT
EL

60 IS 60

SI

80

100

100 120

120 140

140

75

IS

ES
IT

BG

50 CY LU

25

25

CY LU

0

00

FR of researchers

FR of researchers
Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LU, LT: 2001; DE, EL, IT, IF, IS: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC

70

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LU, LT: 2001; DE, EL, FI, IS, SE: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC


Figure 3.5

Scatter plot of the Feminisation Ratios of researchers and technicians in BES, all countries, HC, 2000(1)
300

250 LT

LV

The relationship between the FR value for researchers and technicians (see Box 4) gives us a further insight into the roles of women in R&D. Two questions spring to mind here. Firstly are women opting for occupations for which they are in fact overqualified, as a trade-off that enables them to juggle the work-life balance? Secondly does the presence of women as technicians have a positive impact on the numbers of researchers ­ that is, can we see evidence of women coming up through the ranks of R&D? We can see from the upper part of the graphs that female technicians outnumber their male counterparts in half of the countries in the HES and GOV sectors. We have also seen that women and men are equally qualified in the labour force. Unfortunately, the data that would enable us to answer this question, although already available in some countries, will not be collected at European level until 2004.

FR of technicians

200

150

RO BG HU

100 0 20 PL SK (2) 50 CZ AT 0 FI DK ES IT FR CY IS IE (2) EL 40 SI

EE 60 80 100 120 140

FR of researchers
Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LV, LT: 2001; DK, EL, ES, IE, IT, FI, IS: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC

71

If we calculate Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient `r' for the FRs of RSEs and TECs in the HES, it appears that there is no firm correlation between the occupations (r=35%). However, closer inspection reveals that there are very different `r' statistics for the Member States and Iceland (r = minus 36%) and a strong positive correlation in the Candidate Countries (r =74%). In the GOV however, a slightly stronger `r' is obtained when both groups of countries join forces, but it is still just 57%. The strongest correlation between the Feminisation Ratios of technicians and researchers emerges in the BES (89%) and is largely propelled by the Candidate Countries (80%). The breakdown by occupation and sex is not available for Portugal, but if it were, Portugal would join Latvia on the right hand side of Figure 3.5.


Gender equity in setting the 72 scientific agenda


4. Gender equity in setting the scientific agenda
Decision-making The scarcity of women in senior positions in science inevitably means that their individual and collective opinions are less likely to be voiced in policy and decision-making processes. This in turn means disempowerment in terms of the general planning of research agendas and in the allocation of public funding for projects and managing resources. It also means that women are contributing less than men to shaping the big scientific questions of the moment, many of which impact directly on the lives of women across Europe. In this Chapter, the sex composition of applicants and beneficiaries of research funds and of scientific boards are examined. The data presented are usually drawn from administrative data from national bodies (see Annex 5 for a precise list for each country) and must be interpreted within the different national contexts. Because this situation is monitored through ad hoc indicators, it should also be recalled that the data may not be complete for some countries, but in the calculation of the indicators, the coverage of the numerator always matches the coverage of the denominator. for and beneficiaries of research funds and the composition of scientific boards. The research funding success rate presented here measures the percentage of women applicants who successfully receive funding as a result of their applications. Despite the apparent similarities in the results for men and women, the differences between the success rates of men and women are significant1 in the United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, Austria and Hungary. Although it is not possible to ascertain here what amounts of funding women are obtaining, it is clear that they are marginally less successful as a rule, but that their success rates are dependent upon the culture of awarding funds, which varies enormously between countries. For example, in Slovakia nearly all applicants receive funding, whereas the likelihood is far lower in Finland and the United Kingdom. The volume of applicants can also be regarded as an indicator of the levels of activity of researchers in each country.

73

Research funding The Statistical Correspondents of the Helsinki Group have therefore reported sex-disaggregated data on the applicants

1

The Chi Square statistic (2) was higher than 8.15 for these countries and is significant at 99.5% (1-tailed sig.). However, the numbers of observed cases are higher in Germany, Sweden and the UK, which has the effect of amplifying their results.


Boards The sex composition of scientific boards is intended to yield a measure of the representation of women in scientific decisionmaking at national level. When it comes to appointing highly skilled professionals to decision-making bodies in national research and academic institutions, women are already at a disadvantage because of their smaller numbers. However, the figures here suggest that the practices of networking and `old school tie' systems are preventing them from participating more equitably in the highest echelons of science. The impression that we obtain from the results is therefore of male domination over scientific institutions. Since we know that many aspects of the organisation of science, especially peer review are affected by gender bias (Osborn et al., 2000), it is of utmost importance to the sciencesociety dialogue that the compositions of boards are genderbalanced. The improvement of appointment procedures and recruitment strategies for national boards is therefore a crucial starting point to redressing this balance.

74


Figure 4.1.a

Figure 4.1.b
(1)

Research funding success rates in EU Member States, 2001
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Research funding success rates in Associated Countries, 2001(1)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Ireland Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom
13,7 27,9 25,0 22,1 38,7 34,8 41,1 25,0 30,7 35,3 28,5 32,9 29,5

52,5 55,3

Women Men

Cyprus Czech Republic

25,0 22,0 32,1 37,4

Women Men

58,1 62,9

Estonia Hungary Iceland
79,3 86,0 50,0 61,8 59,8 56,6 30,1 38,9

83,6 87,8

Israel Latvia

81,1 82,2 33,3 48,1 36,7 40,1 40,1 42,7 95,6 98,4

52,1 40,4 45,9

Lithuania Norway Poland Slovakia

39,1 45,2

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: EL, IE: 2002; UK: 2000; AT, SE: 1999 ; BE: 1998 Data are not comparable between countries due to differences in coverage

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: 1)Exceptions to the reference year: EE: 2002; IL, NO: 2000. Data are not comparable between countries due to differences in coverage

75

Although the sex composition of working teams is taken into account in these calculations, the results are based upon the numbers of researchers involved but do not tell us anything about the amounts requested or received. In Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, Finland, Cyprus and Iceland, women are more likely than men to submit successful research funding applications. In fact in the Netherlands, the advantage of women is significant at 90% (1-tailed sig.). These figures show that the diversity of grant allocation between countries is as strong, if not stronger, than the diversity between the sexes.


Figure 4.2.a

Figure 4.2.b

Percentage of women on scientific boards (academies and universities) in EU Member States, 2001(1)
66,7
% 80 70 60 50

Percentage of women on scientific boards (academies and universities) in Associated Countries, 2001(1)
% 80 70 60

46,8

45,9

35,4

40,2

50

29,2

28,0

28,1

40 30

40 30

46,3

23,1

21,4

18,0

18,7

17,4

18,2

24,6

11,1

10,8

6,6

8,8

10,7

20 10 0

10,3

20 10 0

14,7

Belgium Germany Denmark

Greece Spain FranceIreland

Italy

g gdom rlandsAustria Sweden PortugalFinland Kin United

BulgariaCyprus Repu Czech

blic Iceland Latvia Estonia NorwayPoland Slovakia Slovenia Hungary

Nethe Luxembour

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: FR: 1999-2002; EL, IE: 2002; BE: 2000; ES, AT: 1999 Data are not comparable between countries due to differences in coverage

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: BG, CY: 2000 Data are not comparable between countries due to differences in coverage

This indicator serves a double purpose in that it reflects not only the representation of women, but assuming that there is fair competition between men and women for these positions, their ability to break the glass ceiling. Alternatively, when aligned with background indicators such as the percentage of women researchers, women Professors or women HRSTC, it can be interpreted as a measure of the "breakability" of the glass ceiling. In the Member States, women only make up more than half the members of scientific boards in Portugal, but this is based on just fifteen members. The composition is more or less balanced in Sweden and Finland. Norway is the only Associated Country where the gender balance is even ­ in fact much higher than the representation among academic staff, particularly grade A's ­ but again it only refers to a small number of people.

76

5,6

17,3

17,2


77

Annexes


Annex 1.1.a

Annex 1.1.b

1998
Belgium Denmark(2) Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Luxembourg(1) Italy Netherlands Austria Portugal(2) Finland Sweden Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total : : : : : : 228 662 890 : : : 491 440 931 138 035 173 208 267 475 988 906 894 726 791 517 630 271 901 245 247 492 735 990 725 875 850 725 753 241 994

1999
: : : 351 562 913 186 359 545 : : : 765 542 307 070 833 903 : : : 877 680 557 744 739 483 635 208 843 206 152 358 823 068 891 991 925 916 163 176 339

2000
1 390 757 147 297 498 795 852 928 780 : : : 643 364 007 445 959 404 236 265 501 054 990 044 806 683 489 648 142 790 305 199 504 823 974 797 117 932 049 434 134 568

2001
1 420 897 317 : : : 752 044 796 : : : 767 686 453 : : : 254 318 572 : : : 797 736 533 695 176 871 415 376 791 : : : 328 060 388 594 553 147 Bulgaria Cyprus
(1)

1998
Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total 130 189 319 : : : 202 550 752 67 39 106

1999
128 222 350 : : : 256 571 827 69 66 135 493 736 1 229 0 1 1 378 422 800 33 17 50 113 130 243 2 5 7 252 444 696 : : : : : : 155 260 415 103 157 260

2000
164 235 399 10 3 13 258 637 895 66 51 117 274 443 717 1 1 2 : : : 19 21 40 212 230 442 3 3 6 219 439 658 : : : : : : 171 275 446 114 182 296

2001
158 218 376 : : : 370 696 1 066 77 72 149 301 492 793 3 0 3

8 16 24

8 16 24

8 16 25

8 16 24

Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland
(2)

2 3 5 4 6 10

2 3 6 4 5 9

2 3 6 4 5 10

2 3 6

1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 7 10

1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 4 7 11

2 1 4 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 4 7 11

1 2 1 1 1 1 2

Romania Slovakia Slovenia

78

United Kingdom

1 2 3 5 8 14

: : : 303 385 688 15 33 48 78 93 171 : : : 200 500 700 : : : : : : 132 236 368 103 162 265

18 19 37 137 124 261 0 6 6 264 504 768 1 832 2 568 4 400 : : : 212 320 532 146 152 298

Source: Eurostat, Education Notes: (1)LU does not have a complete university system. Most students graduate abroad (2) Provisional data

Source: Eurostat, Education; Israel Central Bureau of Statistics & Council for Higher Education Notes: (1)Excludes students graduating abroad. The number of students studying abroad accounts for over the half of the total number of Cypriot students (2) Poland: Data for ISCED level 6 only available since 2001

Annex 1

Number of ISCED 6 graduates by sex in EU Member States, 1998-2001

Number of ISCED 6 graduates by sex in Associated Countries, 1998-2001


Annex 1.2.a

Annex 1.2.b

1997
Belgium Women Men Total Denmark Women 2 Men 7 Total 10 Germany(1) Women 12 Men 52 Total 65 Greece Women Men Total 9 Spain Women 26 Men 47 Total 74 France Women Men Total Ireland Women Men Total Italy Women 13 Men 35 Total 49 (2) Luxembourg Women Men Total Netherlands(1) Women 4 Men 15 Total 20 Austria Women Men Total Portugal Women 5 Men 7 Total 13 Finland Women Men Total 12 Sweden Women 8 Men 17 Total 25 United Kingdom Women 43 Men 84 Total 128
(3)

1998
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 579 628 207 : : : 317 058 375 842 118 960 : : : : : 918 135 671 806 634 502 136

1999
3 10 14 2 7 9 13 52 66 10 12 22 28 53 82 28 61 90 990 196 186 645 040 685 714 981 695 097 702 799 406 981 387 714 851 565 : : : 326 169 495 : : : 612 767 379 : : : 209 908 117 936 265 201 008 204 212 575 172 747

2000
: : : 905 346 251 229 858 087 : : : 235 684 919 055 135 190 469 735 204 970 983 953 9 16 25 970 922 892 : : : : : : 041 531 572 733 671 404 218 722 940

2001
4 511 10 695 15 206 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 16 372 38 484 54 856 14 25 39 : : : : : : : : : : : : 12 819 19 286 32 105 : : :
Bulgaria Switzerland Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel
(1)

1997
Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total 1 421 2 568 3 989 : : : : : : : : : 1 313 1 981 3 294 4 744 8 725 13 469 : : 917 : : : 1 059 1 239 2 298 : : : : : : 4 362 9 423 13 785 : : : 1 469 2 399 3 868 1 657 2 481 4 138 811 1 688 2 499

1998
1 240 2 568 3 808 : : : 67 179 246 : : : 1 307 1 903 3 210 5 293 9 591 14 884 : : : 1 046 3 618 4 663 1 178 1 380 2 558 : : : : : : : : : : : : 1 528 2 771 4 299 1 853 2 832 4 685 870 1 848 2 718

1999
1 051 2 193 3 244 : : : 76 202 278 : : : 1 298 1 836 3 134 4 898 10 558 15 456 347 653 1 000 1 078 3 610 4 688 1 458 1 544 3 002 : : : : : : 4 839 9 525 14 364 : : : 1 551 2 807 4 358 1 703 2 551 4 254 954 1 964 2 918

2000
1 2 4 11 15 875 613 488 040 140 180 84 242 326 522 212 734 434 913 347 303 457 760 : : : 125 549 674 059 974 033 190 005 195 : : : : : : 925 072 997 643 872 515 053 956 009 007 947 954

2001
: : : : : : : : : 504 580 084 : : : 313 958 271 : : : 140 498 638 : : : 439 800 239 : : : 418 746 164 : : : 470 707 177 089 801 890 : : :

79

: : : 924 683 607 716 988 704 : : 140 286 916 202 : : : : : : 579 13 614 35 193 49 : : : 945 5 946 16 891 21 : 3 : 11 : 14 843 574 417 : : 063 12 686 10 101 17 787 27 294 45 782 85 076 131

2 7 10 14 52 67

14 36 50

34 59 93 30 63 93 1 1 3 14 36 51

3 7 10 1 1 3 6 11 17

3 7 11

6 11 18

Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania Slovakia(1) Slovenia

5 15 21

5 15 21

1 3 4 2 1 4 3 4 7

1 3 4

3 3 7

7 8 16 5 8 14 11 18 29 48 87 135

5 9 15

6 8 14 11 18 30 51 88 139

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)FTE as exception to HC (2) Data provisional (3) Data not official

24 39 63 1 2 4 2 2 5 1 1 2

2 3 6 2 2 4

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)FTE as exception to HC

Annex 1

Number of researchers in HES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-2001

Number of researchers in HES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1997-2001


Annex 1.3.a

Annex 1.3.b

1997
Belgium Women Men Total Denmark Women Men Total Germany(1) Women Men Total Greece Women Men Total Spain Women Men Total France Women Men Total (1) Ireland Women Men Total Italy Women Men Total Luxembourg(2) Women Men Total Netherlands Women Men Total Austria Women Men Total Portugal Women Men Total Finland Women Men Total (1) Sweden Women Men Total United Kingdom Women Men Total : : : 771 787 558 913 489 402 : : 094 955 618 573 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 761 570 331 : : 404 : : 439 : : :

1998
: : : : : : 077 133 210 : : : : : : : : : : : : 553 819 372 : : : : : : 730 560 290 : : : : : 098 : : : 145 549 694

1999
: : : 355 498 853 488 927 415 029 717 746 951 922 873 661 121 782 355 041 395 841 129 970 : : : : : : : : : 972 396 368 420 027 447 190 495 685 : : 253

2000
: : : 112 008 120 253 314 567 : : : 628 443 071 464 067 531 : : : : : : 73 179 252 : : : : : : : : : 163 609 772 : : : 459 784 243

2001
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 83 191 274 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 15 257 Bulgaria Switzerland Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania Slovakia(1) Slovenia Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Total

1997
4 112 4 066 8 178 : : : : : : : : : 441 452 893 1 480 2 915 4 395 : : 625 : : : 619 606 1 225 : : : : : : 1 287 2 750 4 037 : : : 3 145 3 327 6 472 1 000 1 469 2 468 770 1 094 1 864

1998
3 978 4 102 8 080 : : : 48 108 156 : : : 393 372 765 1 794 3 038 4 832 : : 656 : : : 520 451 971 : : : : : : : : : : : : 3 413 3 328 6 741 1 082 1 475 2 557 824 1 110 1 934

1999
3 716 3 861 7 577 : : : 50 110 160 : : : 383 375 758 1 708 3 382 5 090 306 515 821 : : : 492 407 899 : : : : : : 1 300 2 671 3 971 : : : 2 958 2 897 5 855 1 072 1 356 2 428 849 1 114 1 963

2000
3 301 3 462 6 763 150 620 770 56 121 177 2 065 4 624 6 689 349 326 675 2 008 3 358 5 366 : : : : : : 419 381 800 1 199 1 367 2 566 : : : : : : 5 307 7 054 12 361 2 638 2 752 5 390 1 140 1 386 2 526 862 1 057 1 919

2001
: : : : : : : : : 234 853 087 : : : 842 330 172 : : : : : : : : : 114 269 383 : : : 414 663 077 : : : 802 962 764 083 354 438 : : :

1 2 7 29 37 3 4 9 14

8 30 38

2 4 6 8 29 38 1 1 2 5 9 15 5 14 19 1 1 6 11 17

2 4 6 8 29 37

2 4 7

6 10 17 8 19 27

1 3 5

6 10 17

1 1 2

1 2

1 1 3 5 2

6

2 2 5 2 4 6

1 2 4

2 3 5

80

3 11 14

15

3 11 15

2 2 5 1 1 2

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)FTE as exception to HC (2) Data provisional

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)FTE as exception to HC

Annex 1

Number of researchers in GOV by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-2001

Number of researchers in GOV by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1997-2001


Annex 1.4.a

Annex 1.4.b

1997
Belgium Women Men Total Denmark Women Men Total Germany(1) Women Men Total Greece Women Men Total Spain Women Men Total France Women Men Total Ireland(1) Women Men Total Italy Women Men Total Luxembourg Women Men Total Netherlands Women Men Total Austria Women Men Total Portugal Women Men Total Finland Women Men Total Sweden Women Men Total United Kingdom Women Men Total

1998

1999

2000
: : : : : : : : 210 : : : : : : 787 428 215 : : : 490 216 706 : : : : : : : : : : : : 482 966 448 : : : : : :

2001
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Bulgaria Women Men Total Switzerland Women Men Total Cyprus Women Men Total Czech Republic Women Men Total Estonia Women Men Total Hungary Women Men Total Iceland Women Men Total Israel Women Men Total Latvia Women Men Total Lithuania Women Men Total Malta Women Men Total Norway Women Men Total Poland Women Men Total Romania Women Men Total Slovakia(1) Women Men Total Slovenia Women Men Total

1997
994 1 230 2 224 : : : : : : : : : : : : 1 143 2 992 4 135 : : 652 : : : : : : : : : : : : 2 253 10 169 12 422 : : : 8 965 11 358 20 323 962 2 425 3 387 443 1 151 1 594

1998
930 1 074 2 004 : : : 26 110 136 : : : : : : 1 042 2 789 3 831 : : 685 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8 479 11 204 19 683 843 2 060 2 903 461 1 214 1 675

1999
1 637 798 435 : : : 39 150 189 : : : 232 419 651 948 115 063 197 645 842 : : : : : : : : : : : : 476 150 626 : : : 934 345 279 742 780 522 506 266 772

2000
1 2 14 17 605 620 225 845 365 210 54 183 237 353 865 218 164 343 507 226 524 750 : : : : : : 555 727 282 153 186 339 : : : : : : 332 464 796 560 714 274 674 746 420 471 114 585

2001
: : : : : : : : : 341 777 118 : : : 208 700 908 : : : : : : 518 405 923 248 343 591 : : : 979 508 487 : : : 835 821 656 644 612 256 : : :

2 2 11 13

1 2 17

81

: : : : : : : : : : 1 532 2 350 : 9 137 9 452 : 10 669 11 802 : : 14 414 : : 135 735 : 133 529 150 149 : : 940 : : 2 991 832 : 3 931 381 : 3 353 556 : 13 957 937 : 17 310 : : : : : : : : : : : 1 085 : : 4 206 : : 5 291 : : 5 161 : : 24 385 : 30 596 29 546 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1 258 : : 12 708 : : 13 966 : 526 : 793 707 : 2 535 233 : 3 328 : : 3 999 : : 18 516 541 20 218 22 515 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

153

1 6 8

1 6 8

17 68 86

3 4

1 3 4

1 3 4

5 24 29

1

2 10 12

2 12 15

4 19 24

6 9 16 1 2 1 1

3 8 11 5 7 13 1 2 1 1

4 6 11 1 2

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)FTE as exception to HC

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)FTE as exception to HC

Annex 1

Number of researchers in BES by sex in EU Member States, HC, 1997-2001

Number of researchers in BES by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 1997-2001


Annex 2.1.a

Number of ISCED 6 graduates by broad field of study and sex in EU Member States, 2001(1)
Women
Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg(2) Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom
EDUCATION HUMANITIES AND ARTS SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING AGRICULTURE & VETERINARY HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES ENGINEERING, SOCIAL SCIENCES, MANUFACTURING BUSINESS AND LAW AND CONSTRUCTION SERVICES & UNSPECIFIED TOTAL

6 : 175 : 108 62 4 : : 64 170 96 63 316
EDUCATION

47 39 941 : 394 959 38 309 70 131 231 115 114 875
HUMANITIES AND ARTS

175 62 1 833 : 822 1 963 125 392 135 144 216 129 246 2 025
SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING

24 27 464 : 71 13 7 196 75 47 32 20 45 135
AGRICULTURE & VETERINARY

78 85 3 802 : 631 328 38 571 279 23 98 212 501 1 090
HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES

26 49 275 : 125 256 14 278 54 52 183 68 220 412

64 35 1 218 : 552 841 27 308 184 226 396 169 134 726

0 : 44 : 64 24 1 : : 8 89 14 5 16
SERVICES & UNSPECIFIED

8 2 4 2

1 1 5

420 297 752 : 767 445 254 054 797 695 415 823 328 594

Men
Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg(2) Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom

ENGINEERING, SOCIAL SCIENCES, MANUFACTURING BUSINESS AND LAW AND CONSTRUCTION

TOTAL

82

5 : 245 : 91 62 4 : : 39 86 37 33 256

104 38 1 140 : 474 737 32 225 152 124 129 137 145 1 009

4 1 3

3

346 128 998 : 020 026 168 429 395 261 218 216 500 177

53 31 419 : 142 10 12 154 154 45 25 31 48 206

119 94 4 555 : 664 247 25 290 389 9 53 125 449 1 021

143 158 2 058 : 413 701 49 530 336 348 285 253 691 1 778

119 49 2 573 : 703 1 143 28 362 310 347 463 163 192 1 081

8 : 56 : 179 33 0 : : 3 117 12 2 24

16 3 5 1 1 1 1 2 8

897 498 044 : 686 959 318 990 736 176 376 974 060 553

Source: Eurostat, Education Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DK, FR, IT, FI: 2000 (2) Luxembourg does not have a complete university system. Most students study abroad

Annex 2


Annex 2.1.b

Number of ISCED 6 graduates by broad field of study and sex in Associated Countries, 2001(1)
Women
Bulgaria Cyprus(2) Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Slovakia Slovenia
EDUCATION HUMANITIES AND ARTS SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING AGRICULTURE & VETERINARY HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES ENGINEERING, SOCIAL SCIENCES, MANUFACTURING BUSINESS AND LAW AND CONSTRUCTION SERVICES & UNSPECIFIED TOTAL

14 2 17 0 37 : 31 2 : : 12 0 13 13
EDUCATION

29 1 46 5 83 : 52 2 27 0 37 491 18 24
HUMANITIES AND ARTS

31 2 85 7 37 : 173 8 19 : 1 316 50 33
SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING

14 0 21 1 17 : 13 2 4 0 24 180 15 9
AGRICULTURE & VETERINARY

28 0 57 57 63 2 31 0 14 : 61 522 32 23
HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES

16 0 56 0 12 : 20 2 18 0 11 133 36 13

25 5 84 7 52 1 58 2 55 : 38 170 42 31

1 0 4 : : : : : : : 80 20 6 :
SERVICES & UNSPECIFIED

158 10 370 77 301 3 378 18 137 0 264 1 832 212 146
TOTAL

Men
Bulgaria Cyprus(2) Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Slovakia Slovenia

ENGINEERING, SOCIAL SCIENCES, MANUFACTURING BUSINESS AND LAW AND CONSTRUCTION

83

18 2 10 0 24 : 10 1 : : 10 0 16 3

37 0 46 9 115 : 71 2 18 4 42 522 31 23

37 1 264 15 105 : 218 10 23 : 10 393 61 43

13 0 46 1 38 : 14 0 0 1 41 230 24 4

26 0 55 31 102 1 18 0 18 : 89 589 27 17

42 0 151 9 38 : 50 5 42 1 68 546 90 44

37 0 116 7 70 0 41 1 23 : 58 213 48 18

8 0 8 : : : : : : : 186 75 23 0

218 3 696 72 492 0 422 19 124 6 504 2 568 320 52

Source: Eurostat, Education; Israel Central Bureau of Statistics & Council for Higher Education Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: IL: 1999; CY: 2000 (2) Cyprus: Data exclude students studying abroad

Annex 2


Annex 2.2.a

Number of researchers by main field of science and sex in HES in EU Member States, HC, 1999(1)
Women
Belgium(3) Denmark Germany Greece Spain France(4) Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands(2) Austria Portugal(4) Finland Sweden United Kingdom
NATURAL SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY MEDICAL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES OTHER TOTAL

1 125 665 6 276 : : 9 344 : 3 218 1 631 730 2 365 1 231 1 221 12 919
NATURAL SCIENCES

2

1

1 1

453 175 966 : : 315 : 920 559 167 864 450 056 709

13

3 2 1 1

2 8

822 340 535 : : 449 : 516 1 609 387 694 894 471 590

71 289 1 574 : : : : 712 276 147 469 96 647 563
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

1 220 467 4 417 : : 9 559 : 1 906 6 1 620 697 2 817 1 365 2 249 13 651
SOCIAL SCIENCES

9

5

1 8

709 883 191 : : X : 060 2 690 714 X 943 214 172

15 0 2 301 : : 6 388 : 0 0 227 0 0 0 0 5 614
OTHER

4 415 2 819 40 260 : : 30 055 : 14 332 10 5 612 3 842 7 209 4 979 8 858 51 218

Men
Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain France(4) Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands(2) Austria Portugal(4) Finland Sweden United Kingdom
(3)

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MEDICAL SCIENCES

HUMANITIES

TOTAL

84

2 687 2 239 28 335 : : 22 430 : 7 178 1 2 575 3 282 2 497 2 351 2 784 29 339

1 808 1 259 23 318 : : 7 356 : 5 939 3 516 1 699 2 148 1 560 4 495 11 262

1 910 614 26 099 : : 7 210 : 8 468 1 2 745 2 965 702 826 2 354 9 264

212 357 3 428 : : : : 2 221 800 334 596 169 935 1 022

2 547 1 275 14 414 : : 14 447 : 5 236 10 3 919 1 634 2 965 1 540 2 950 18 248

1 268 1 494 16 920 : : X : 7 127 1 1 519 1 204 X 919 1 563 12 087

61 0 4 442 : : 11 692 : 0 6 693 0 0 0 0 7 500

10 493 7 238 116 956 : : 63 135 : 36 169 19 15 767 11 118 8 908 7 365 15 081 88 722

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LU: 2001; DK, DE, FR, UK: 2000; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) Data not official. Estimates made from BE-FL for 2001 and BE-FR for 2000 (4) SS includes H

Annex 2


Number of researchers by main field of science and sex in HES in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000(1)
Women
Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway(2) Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia
NATURAL SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY MEDICAL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES OTHER TOTAL

101 8 489 217 : 17 147 230 349 : 564 3 477 186 427 38
NATURAL SCIENCES

114 1 368 91 : 59 66 107 272 : 320 1 690 487 516 93
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

282 0 87 73 : 30 154 69 408 : 1 777 3 381 100 380 46
MEDICAL SCIENCES

0 0 61 59 : 14 12 85 84 : 162 836 12 : 75
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

115 17 64 163 : 34 340 104 746 : 1 478 3 401 77 521 144
SOCIAL SCIENCES

31 11 152 116 : 21 382 191 621 : 1 061 2 861 9 209 67
HUMANITIES

: : : : : : 39 : : : 56 793 : : :
OTHER

643 36 1 221 719 : 175 1140 786 2 480 : 5 418 16 439 871 2 053 463

Men
Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway(2) Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia

TOTAL

85

122 39 938 435 : 80 1101 424 571 : 1 836 6 805 325 861 86

606 4 999 291 : 85 476 200 840 : 1 516 9 036 931 1 006 403

315 0 163 58 : 43 250 19 331 : 2 199 4 420 94 368 43

3 0 107 70 : 16 74 59 130 : 315 1 687 37 : 71

163 34 99 153 : 44 781 144 561 : 2 275 5 582 260 511 204

34 16 241 80 : 37 689 50 313 : 1 563 5 816 24 210 70

: : : : : : 127 : : : 42 2 396 : : :

1 243 92 2 547 1 087 : 305 3 498 896 2 746 : 9 746 35 742 1 671 2 956 877

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: IL, LT, NO, PL: 2001; IS, LV: 1999 (2) HC as exception to FTE

Annex 2

Annex 2.2.b


Annex 2.3.a

Number of researchers by main field of science and sex in GOV in EU Member States, FTE, 1999(1)
Women
Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain(2) France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom
NATURAL SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY MEDICAL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES OTHER TOTAL

: 202 3 231 : 598 : 124 : : : 34 : : : :
NATURAL SCIENCES

: 59 1 496 : 616 : 91 : : : 13 : : : :
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

: 603 874 : 860 : 28 : : : 33 : : : :
MEDICAL SCIENCES

: 214 691 : 596 : 91 : : : 23 : : : :
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

: 106 2 196 : 192 : 18 : : : 91 : : : :
SOCIAL SCIENCES

: 102 : : X : 0 : : : 95 : : : :
HUMANITIES

: : : : : 3 : : : : : : :
OTHER

: 1 286 8 488 655 2 861 : 355 5 065 : : 289 2 927 2 420 190 :

Men
Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain(2) France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom

TOTAL

86

: 630 13 862 : 1 094 : 232 : : : 93 : : : :

: 240 9 261 : 1 380 : 234 : : : 68 : : : :

: 791 1 689 : 1 185 : 11 : : : 53 : : : :

386 1 770 : 977 : 520 : : : 90 : : : :

: 152 3 345 : 239 : 36 : : : 186 : : : :

: 140 : : X : 4 : : : 175 : : : :

: : : : : : 4 : : : : : : :

2 29 1 4 1 8

2 4

: 339 927 345 876 : 041 632 : : 665 441 027 495 :

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DK: 2000; ES: 1993; AT: 1998 (2) SS includes H

Annex 2


Annex 2.3.b

Number of researchers by main field of science and sex in GOV in Associated Countries, FTE, 2000(1)
Women
Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway(2) Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia
NATURAL SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY MEDICAL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES TOTAL

1 298 12 598 58 : 21 : 279 454 : 211 : 1 056 438 206
NATURAL SCIENCES

478 1 117 16 : 42 : 36 121 : 98 : 515 110 53
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

248 1 131 59 : 35 : 29 60 : 172 : 271 171 130
MEDICAL SCIENCES

482 8 228 29 : 24 : 52 124 : 281 : 54 123 44
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

121 4 47 11 : 8 : 23 99 : 466 : 401 279 195
SOCIAL SCIENCES

503 5 276 114 : 5 : 6 239 : 186 : 280 19 12
HUMANITIES

3 130 30 1 397 287 2 008 135 : 425 1 097 : 1 414 : 2 577 1 140 640

Men
Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway(2) Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia

TOTAL

87

1 199 9 1 517 138 : 65 : 149 651 : 546 : 1 120 622 389

924 5 718 31 : 55 : 37 307 : 522 : 734 251 122

218 1 135 23 : 39 : 22 48 : 191 : 118 121 83

480 23 244 35 : 107 : 44 124 : 513 : 108 126 62

105 10 69 7 : 13 : 71 60 : 662 : 277 230 184

361 3 343 38 : 7 : 4 145 : 229 : 310 36 15

3 287 52 3 026 272 3 358 286 : 327 1 335 : 2 663 : 2 667 1 386 855

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics; DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LT, NO: 2001; IS, LV: 1999 (2) HC as exception to FTE

Annex 2


Annex 2.4.a

Number of researchers by NACE category and sex in BES in EU Member States, HC, 1999(1)
Women
Nace Code 24.4 Pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemicals and botanical products Nace Code 24 Chemicals, chemical products and man-made fibres (excluding pharmaceuticals, 24.4) Total Manufacturing (including 24) Real estate, renting and business activities Other Nace codes (except D & K) Total

Belgium Denmark(4) Germany(2)(3) Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland(3)(4) Sweden United Kingdom

: 757 x 61 598 3 658 : 924 : : 206 37 x : :
Nace Code 24.4 Pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemicals and botanical products

: 72 3 956 50 288 1 519 : 430 : : 40 54 1 660 : :
Nace Code 24 Chemicals, chemical products and man-made fibres (excluding pharmaceuticals, 24.4)

: 1 183 11 686 421 2 165 14 022 : 3 233 : : 773 387 6 182 : :
Total Manufacturing (including 24)

2 1 2

1

: 751 078 234 926 950 : 040 : : 389 250 340 : :

: 288 844 285 262 1 816 : 217 : : 96 156 683 : :
Other Nace codes (except D & K)

: 2 222 14 608 940 3 353 17 788 : 5 490 : : 1 258 793 8 205 : :

Men

Real estate, renting and business activities

Total

88

Belgium Denmark(4) Germany(2)(3) Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland(3) Sweden United Kingdom

: 960 x 52 835 3 984 : 1284 : : 295 40 x : :

: 233 8 369 91 819 3 044 : 1 614 : : 305 102 987 : :

4 118 1 10 52 17 9 1 22

: 218 225 542 054 818 : 891 : : 158 471 216 : :

: 3 722 11 951 808 3 246 8 921 : 5 603 : : 2 544 673 5 091 : :

: 1 133 5 366 641 658 6 689 : 722 : : 1 006 391 2 657 : :

9 135 2 13 68 24 12 2 29

: 073 542 991 958 428 : 216 : : 708 535 964 : :

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: FR, IT, FI: 2000; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) 24.4 included in 24 (4) Definition of BES coverage differs from Annex Table 1.4.a

Annex 2


Number of researchers by NACE category and sex in BES in Associated Countries, HC, 2001(1)
Women
Nace Code 24.4 Pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemicals and botanical products Nace Code 24 Chemicals, chemical products and man-made fibres (excluding pharmaceuticals, 24.4) Total Manufacturing (including 24) Real estate, renting and business activities Other Nace codes (except D & K) Total

Bulgaria(3) Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia(3) Lithuania(3) Malta Norway Poland Romania(3) Slovakia(2) Slovenia

x 7 93 3 (2) 488 9 : x x : 133 : x 62 116
Nace Code 24.4 Pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemicals and botanical products

214 5 103 19 (2) 109 9 : 74 58 : 156 : 362 96 32
Nace Code 24 Chemicals, chemical products and man-made fibres (excluding pharmaceuticals, 24.4)

358 17 558 73 870 40 : 97 239 : 975 : 3 167 254 330
Total Manufacturing (including 24)

35 30 571 58 152 144 : 260 7 : 1 372 : 196 232 118
Real estate, renting and business activities

212 7 212 33 186 13 : 161 2 : 632 : 1 472 158 23
Other Nace codes (except D & K)

1 1

2 4

605 54 341 164 208 197 : 518 248 : 979 : 835 644 471

Men

Total

89

Bulgaria(3) Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia(3) Lithuania(3) Malta Norway Poland Romania(3) Slovakia(2) Slovenia

x 5 105 5 (2) 458 9 : x x : 340 : x 39 54

91 16 275 29 (2) 177 17 : 28 29 : 160 : 122 87 28

4 2

4 4

257 73 043 109 297 256 : 119 274 : 750 : 804 687 762

75 71 2 140 169 593 315 : 241 64 : 5 410 : 416 620 278

288 39 594 65 810 74 : 45 5 : 2 348 : 1 601 305 74

6 3

12 6 1 1

620 183 777 343 700 645 : 405 343 : 508 : 821 612 114

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: BG, CY, EE, SI: 2000; IS: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) 24.4 included in 24

Annex 2

Annex 2.4.b


Annex 3.1.a

Number of senior academic staff (grade A) and total number of academic staff (grades A+B+C+D) by sex in EU Member States, HC, 2000(1)
GRADE A Women 157 82 967 216 1 457 3 845 23 2 468 156 123 102 412 493 1 691 Men 2 035 905 11 612 1 699 8 188 19 901 307 14 423 2 314 1 872 429 1 760 3 068 11 770 Total academic staff (A+B+C+D) Women Men 3 990 10 196 2 819 7 239 43 228 117 161 1 898 5 511 24 582 51 717 30 055 63 135 1 050 2 411 16 372 38 484 6 244 16 333 3 650 10 680 2 516 3 836 4 930 7 665 4 206 10 661 45 338 81 248

Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands(2) Austria Portugal(2) Finland Sweden United Kingdom

Annex 3.1.b

Number of senior academic staff (grade A) and total number of academic staff (grades A+B+C+D) by sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2001(1)
GRADE A Women 384 1 133 97 : 22 165 78 61 1 304 1 445 : 108 78 Men 1 771 26 1 519 458 : 162 1 398 295 455 44 1 986 6 698 : 1 254 624 Total academic staff (A+B+C+D) Women Men 10 359 13 529 84 242 5 555 10 805 1 627 2 194 6 313 11 958 155 363 1 140 3 498 2 093 1 686 3 439 3 800 19 210 5 418 9 746 15 378 31 554 : : 4 628 8 141 675 1 982

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DE, IT, SE: 2001; BE, ES, PT: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage & definitions

90

Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel(2) Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: CY: 2000; MT: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage & definitions

Annex 3


Annex 3.2.a

Number of grade A academic staff by main field of science and sex in EU Member States, HC, 2000(1)
Women
Belgium(3) Denmark Germany Greece Spain France(4) Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands(2) Austria Portugal(2)(5) Finland Sweden United Kingdom
NATURAL SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY MEDICAL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES OTHER TOTAL

6 11 137 : : 1 526 : 508 14 15 35 38 72 326
NATURAL SCIENCES

1 3 48 : : 150 : 129 11 4 3 17 41 29
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

4 11 61 : : 355 : 294 20 27 20 80 108 271
MEDICAL SCIENCES

2 5 30 : : X : 105 7 7 6 6 25 9
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

26 23 149 : : 1 615 : 394 54 31 39 146 95 596
SOCIAL SCIENCES

10 29 536 : : X : 1 038 48 39 X 125 115 375
HUMANITIES

0 0 6 : : 199 : 0 2 : : : 37 85
OTHER

1 3 2

1

49 82 967 216 457 845 23 468 156 123 102 412 493 691

Men
Belgium(3) Denmark Germany Greece Spain France(4) Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands(2) Austria Portugal(2)(5) Finland Sweden United Kingdom

TOTAL

2 8 2

91

3

138 250 817 : : 168 : 869 420 475 120 418 622 891

1 2 2

1

103 106 456 : : 186 : 364 393 238 96 309 702 236

1 3 2

1

113 101 461 : : 634 : 815 361 326 45 295 731 596

37 46 344 : : X : 924 91 68 29 41 128 105

2 5 1

2

185 213 040 : : 181 : 951 715 452 138 445 505 756

85 189 3 383 : : X : 3 500 289 313 X 252 338 1 720

6 0 111 : : 732 : 0 45 : : : 42 466

11 1 8 19 14 2 1 1 3 11

667 905 612 699 188 901 307 423 314 872 429 760 068 770

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: DE, IT, SE: 2001; ES, PT: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) Belgium: French-speaking community only (4) France: NS includes AS; SS includes H (5) Portugal: SS includes H Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage & definitions

Annex 3


Annex 3.2.b

Number of grade A academic staff by main field of science and sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2001(1)
Women
Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel(2) Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania Slovakia(3) Slovenia
NATURAL SCIENCES ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY MEDICAL SCIENCES AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES OTHER TOTAL

: 1 : : : 3 39 0 : : 37 260 : 14 4
NATURAL SCIENCES

: 0 : : : 1 10 0 : : 8 97 : 9 4
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

: 0 : : : 3 20 5 : : 53 304 : 22 19
MEDICAL SCIENCES

: 0 : : : 0 0 0 : : 8 122 : 4 8
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

: 0 : : : 3 37 11 : : 79 251 : 48 18
SOCIAL SCIENCES

: 0 : : : 2 52 8 : : 119 398 : 11 24
HUMANITIES

: 0 : : : 2 6 54 : : 0 13 : : 1
OTHER

: 1 : : : 14 165 78 : : 304 1 445 : 108 78
TOTAL

Men
Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel(2) Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania Slovakia(3) Slovenia

92

: 5 : : : 40 560 37 : : 503 1 350 : 121 63

: 0 : : : 17 197 0 : : 276 1 324 : 366 138

: 0 : : : 28 105 8 : : 319 858 : 213 85

: 0 : : : 0 33 0 : : 82 488 : 83 49

: 12 : : : 29 236 17 : : 436 1 056 : 392 138

: 9 : : : 31 224 14 : : 370 1 500 : 79 128

: 0 : : : 3 43 233 : : 0 122 : : 23

1

1 6 1

: 26 : : : 148 398 309 : : 986 698 : 254 624

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: CY, LV: 2000; IS: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC (3) Slovakia: H = Sciences of culture & arts; SS = SS + rest of H Data are not yet comparable between countries due to differences in coverage & definitions

Annex 3


Annex 3.3.a
HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR
COUNTRY
Belgium

GOVERNMENT SECTOR Women Men
: : : 008 : : 927 983 : 717 870 379 443 116 177 067 : 451 : : : 129 941 566 191 29 36 : : : 560 618 105 : : : 027 643 : : : : 784 921 095

BUSINESS ENTERPRISE SECTOR Women
: : : 350 246 028 414 : : 940 452 058 353 540 349 787 : 902 085 474 389 161 335 729 : : : : : : 258 335 244 : : : 999 026 : : : : : : :

OCCUPATION

Women
: : : 905 875 : 714 411 315 097 567 367 235 645 271 053 : 761 : : : : : : 14 0 2 : : : 842 151 589 : : : 936 039 : : : : : : :

Men
: : : 346 337 : 979 255 795 702 760 921 684 442 157 138 : 031 : : : : : : 25 3 0 : : : 118 114 119 : : : 265 796 : : : : : : :

Men
: : : 452 989 444 735 : : 991 170 000 957 026 204 429 : 293 206 519 648 385 717 313 : : : : : : 708 658 737 : : : 516 865 : : : : : : :

93

Researchers Technicians Others Denmark Researchers Technicians Others Germany(2) Researchers Technicians Others Greece Researchers Technicians Others Spain Researchers Technicians Others France Researchers Technicians Others Ireland(2) Researchers Technicians Others Italy Researchers Technicians Others Luxembourg Researchers Technicians Others Netherlands Researchers Technicians Others Austria Researchers Technicians Others Portugal Researchers Technicians Others Finland Researchers Technicians Others Sweden Researchers Technicians Others United Researchers Kingdom Technicians Others

2 2 13 6 16 10 4 5 34 2 8 30 22

7 1 52 6 5 12 3 3 59 3 6 63 19

2 8 16 1 1 6 3 2 8 11

6 6 3

3 2 2

11 1 1

1

5 3

8 2

2 2

3 2 4

: : : 112 : : 488 853 : 029 646 270 628 332 987 464 : 788 : : : 841 079 351 83 32 11 : : : 730 546 175 : : : 420 433 : : : : 459 769 036

4 29 16 1 2 10 3 3 19 11

2 3 2 14

9 8 3 135 2 2 1 13 15 7 68 73 4 1 24 23 9

Number of R&D personnel by sector, occupation and sex in EU Member States, HC, 2000(1)

1 3 3 3 17 27 1 5 3 2

11 8 4

1 1

1 1 1

12 6 1

4 1

3 4

18 9

11 3 5

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LU: 2001; DK (BES), DE, EL, ES (BES), IE, IT, FI: 1999; AT: 1998 (2) FTE as exception to HC

Annex 3


Annex 3.3.b
HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR
COUNTRY
Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania

GOVERNMENT SECTOR Women
3 301 2 101 1 086 56 79 114 2 065 1 825 1 250 349 150 193 2 008 1 521 2 045 306 114 83 : : : 419 117 285 1 114 868 715 : : : 1 414 : : 5 307 3 126 2 726 2 638 747 641 1 140 772 402 862 340 321

BUSINESS ENTERPRISE SECTOR Women
605 417 205 54 35 63 353 343 690 164 125 97 226 355 427 197 89 63 : : : 518 247 240 248 121 95 : : : 979 : : 332 718 369 560 966 127 674 720 508 471 597 632

OCCUPATION
Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others Researchers Technicians Others

Women
875 158 135 84 2 21 522 651 094 434 336 391 303 968 554 347 69 163 : : : 059 330 252 439 459 995 : : : 418 : : 925 721 064 643 269 523 053 487 67 007 187 512

Men
1 613 272 113 242 9 20 7 212 1 347 486 1 913 169 199 11 457 1 244 1 446 653 103 70 : : : 1 974 211 204 3 800 222 291 : : : 9 746 : : 39 072 3 627 2 130 2 872 244 404 2 956 230 67 1 947 238 251

Men
3 462 922 481 121 147 126 4 624 1 154 952 326 29 71 3 358 1 101 1 222 515 133 94 : : : 381 75 129 1 269 331 523 : : : 2 663 : : 7 054 1 997 1 682 2 752 558 391 1 386 291 198 1 057 273 279

Men
620 313 113 183 84 30 865 523 332 343 119 62 524 124 442 645 244 116 : : : 405 97 209 343 51 96 : : : 508 : : 464 088 136 714 970 222 746 097 427 114 872 138

Number of R&D personnel by sector, occupation and sex in Associated Countries, HC, 2000(1)

3 1 1 1 6 1 3

1 2 1

6 5 2

1 1

3 1

2 3

5 24 4 5 1 2 1

2 3 2 2 5 2 2

12 8 4 3 7 1 3 1 1 1 1

94

Slovakia(2) Slovenia

Source: Eurostat, S&T statistics Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: LV (BES), LT, NO: 2001; IS: 1999 (2) FTE as exception to HC

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Annex 4.1.a

Number of applicants and beneficiaries of research funding by sex in EU Member States, 2001(1)
APPLICANTS BENEFICIARIES

Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom

Women 870 584 2 522 888 : : 153 : 29 648 207 1 152 500 1 206 8 561

Men 2 846 1 709 19 144 745 : : 260 : 43 3 213 891 1 013 1 224 4 039 20 068

Women 457 192 1 465 222 712 1 547 54 : 23 251 85 465 125 472 1 169

Men 1 573 505 12 043 229 669 2 353 74 : 37 1 117 464 465 270 1 827 5 609

Annex 4.1.b

Number of applicants and beneficiaries of research funding by sex in Associated countries, 2001(1)
APPLICANTS BENEFICIARIES

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: EL, IE: 2002; FR, UK: 2000; ES, AT, SE: 1999 ; BE: 1998 Data are not comparable between countries due to differences in coverage and definitions

Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia(2)

Women : 20 53 232 266 338 236 285 24 : 1 041 2 513 : 45 219

Men : 91 230 670 903 606 1 119 573 77 : 4 086 6 401 : 124 215

Women : 5 17 194 133 202 71 231 8 : 382 1 008 : 43 446

Men : 20 86 588 558 343 435 471 37 : 1 638 2 733 : 122 527

95

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: EE, CY: 2002; IL, LT, NO: 2000 (2) SI: Beneficiaries include all the persons who are receiving funds for junior research, not only the ones who have received the funds in the observed year Data are not comparable between countries due to differences in coverage and definitions

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Number of women and men on scientific boards (academies and universities), EU Member States, 2001(1)
Belgium Denmark Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom Women 94 182 134 91 94 657 88 1 393 6 35 275 10 37 135 95 Men 815 332 1 068 433 242 2 185 323 2 072 85 159 2 257 5 42 159 230

Annex 4.2.b

Number of women and men on scientific boards (academies and universities), Associated Countries, 2001(1)
Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia Women 74 5 28 4 74 48 : 28 : : 25 1 693 : 143 23 Men 429 52 233 68 353 123 : 122 : : 29 7 584 : 438 111

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: FR: 1999-2002; EL, IE: 2002; BE: 2000; ES, AT: 1999 Data are not comparable between countries due to differences in coverage and definitions

96

Source: DG Research, WiS database Notes: (1)Exceptions to the reference year: CY: 2002; BG: 2000 Data are not comparable between countries due to differences in coverage and definitions

Annex 4

Annex 4.2.a


These notes are intended to provide a quick reference guide for the reader about the coverage and identification of groups, units and concepts presented in this booklet.

HRSTC:

Statistical terms & classifications
1. Students and Graduates The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED-97) categorises education programmes by level (ISCED 6 is used here, which corresponds to "advance research programmes", i.e. doctoral degrees and PhDs) and by field of study. The 1976 ISCED classification was revised in 1997, which has resulted in a break in the time series data from 1998 onwards (UNESCO, 1997). The number of graduates refers to those graduating in the reference year and not to the number of graduates in the population. The number of graduates also refers to non-nationals graduating in the country, but does not include nationals graduating abroad. In some countries, France and Portugal, for example, non-PhD programmes with an advanced research component are included in ISCED 6. 2. S&T (Science and Technology) in education The term S&T corresponds to the sum of ISCED narrow fields of study 42 (Life sciences), 44 (Physical sciences), 46 (Mathematics and statistics), 48 (Computing), 52 (Engineering and engineering trades), 54 (Manufacturing and processing) and 58 (Architecture and building). A more detailed description for each field can be found in the ISCED-97 manual (UNESCO, 1997). 3. Human Resources in Science and Technology (HRST) This methodology is based upon identifying individuals from the Community Labour Force Survey case data, according to educational attainment and occupation, and is proposed by the Canberra Manual (OECD, 1994). The types of HRST presented in this publication are: HRST: People who fulfil one or the other of the following conditions: · Successfully completed education at the third level in an S&T field of study · Not formally qualified as above but employed in a S&T occupation (ISCO-2 "Professionals" and ISCO-3 "Technicians") where the above qualifications are normally required. HRSTE: HRST Education ­ People who have successfully completed education at the third level (tertiary education or ISCED 5+6 since the 1997 revision) in an S&T field of study (see S&T (Science and Technology) in education above.

4. ISCO-88 definitions Two of the ISCO-88 major groups are used in eth definition of HRST, HRSTO and HRSTC. They are: Major group 2 - "Professionals" (ISCO-2): "This major group includes occupations whose main tasks require a high level of professional knowledge and experience in the fields of physical and life sciences, or social sciences and humanities. The main tasks consist of increasing the existing stock of knowledge, applying scientific and artistic concepts and theories to the solution of problems, and teaching about the foregoing in a systematic manner". Research occupations are classified as ISCO-2. Major group 3 ­ "Technicians and associate professionals" (ISCO-3): "This major group includes occupations whose main tasks require technical knowledge and experience in one or more fields of physical and life sciences, or social sciences and humanities. The main tasks consist of carrying out technical work connected with the application of concepts and operational methods in the above-mentioned fields, and in teaching at certain educational levels." 5. Scientists and Engineers (S&E) in employment (see below for definition of S&E researchers) · Physical, mathematical and engineering occupations (ISCO '88 COM code 21) · Life science and health occupations (ISCO '88 COM code 22). 6. Researchers and research personnel The Frascati Manual (Proposed standard practice for Surveys on Research and Experimental Development, OECD, 2002) provides an international definition for Research personnel, §294, which is composed of: RSE: Researchers §301: "Researchers are professionals engaged in the conception or creation of new knowledge, products, processes, methods and systems and also in the management of the projects concerned". TEC: Technicians and equivalent staff §306: "Technicians and equivalent staff are persons whose main tasks require technical knowledge and experience in one or more fields of engineering, physical and life sciences or social sciences and humanities. They participate in R&D by performing scientific and technical tasks involving the application of concepts and operational methods, normally under the supervision of researchers.

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Methodological Notes

HRSTO:

HRST Occupation ­ People who are employed in a S&T occupation (ISCO '88 COM, codes 2 "Professionals" and 3 "Technicians") HRST Core ­ People who are both HRSTE and HRSTO.


Equivalent staff perform the corresponding R&D tasks under the supervision of researchers in the social sciences and humanities". AUX: Other supporting staff (Others) §309: "Other supporting staff includes skilled and unskilled craftsmen, secretarial and clerical staff participating in R&D projects or directly associated with such projects." 7. Main fields of science The Frascati Manual (OECD 2002) also provides definitions for the six main fields of science (page 67), which are adhered to in this publication, unless otherwise indicated. The following abbreviations have been used: NS: Natural sciences ET: Engineering and Technology MS: Medical sciences AS: Agricultural sciences SS: Social sciences H: Humanities. The breakdown of researchers by field of science is according to the field in which they work and not according to the field of study of their qualification. 8. S&E Researchers In Chapter 2, the term `S&E' refers to the sum of Researchers in the main fields of science NS and ET. 9. Sectors of the economy The Frascati Manual (OECD 2002) identifies and defines four sectors of the economy (§156): HES (§206): Higher Education Sector GOV (§184): Government Sector BES (§163): Business Enterprise Sector PNP (§194): Private non-profit sector. The sector entitled "Abroad" is not referred to in this booklet. 10. Units (Head count & Full-time equivalence) The units of measurement proposed by the Frascati Manual are: HC (§329): Head count. The number of persons engaged in R&D at a given date; the average number of persons engaged in R&D during the (calendar) year or the total number of persons engaged in R&D during the (calendar) year. FTE (§333): Full-time equivalence. One FTE corresponds to one year's work by one person. Data are presented where possible in HC. For the countries only able to provide data in FTE, an estimated figure in HC is necessary to calculate some indi-

cators. As the relationship between HC and FTE is not necessarily linear, the estimation procedure is based on factors for conversion between HC and FTE and agreed with the statistical correspondent for that country. When data on national conversion factors are available, the mean of the conversion factors available for countries and years is used. HC figures that have been estimated from observed FTE data are remarked in the footnotes. 11. R&D expenditure The following terms are used in Chapter 1 of this booklet: GERD: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D. It relates to the total intramural expenditure on R&D performed on the national territory during a given period. (Frascati Manual, §423). GOVERD: Government Intramural Expenditure on R&D. HERD: Higher Education expenditure on R&D. 12. Academic staff grades / Full Professors The data for this analysis are drawn from the various surveys of higher education that are undertaken within European countries (see Data sources below). However, although these surveys have many questions in common, there is no broad rule for defining the coverage of personnel surveyed and it is not possible to distinguish research staff from teaching staff in most cases. Furthermore, there is no formal international standard or classification that would enable such an analysis of these data. The mapping of grades presented in this publication is based upon the national perception of the titles Full, Associate and Assistant Professors might be. They are not based on any other explicit guideline, although every effort has been made to ensure that the grades are broadly comparable. This idea has been drawn from the methodology presented in the ETAN report `Science policies in the European Union: Promoting excellence through mainstreaming gender equality, which included three grades of professors: Full Professor (Grade A), Associate Professor (Grade B), and Assistant Professor (Grade C). In order to avoid over-interpretation of these grades, we have limited the analysis in this publication to the Full Professors (grade A) and to the overall total academic staff (grades A+B+ C+D), since there is a good level of comparability for the Full Professors. A complete list of the grades reported for each country is included later in this Annex. Because this is one of only two sources of data that enable us to measure vertical segregation, the statistical correspondents of the Helsinki Group on Women and Science, in collaboration with the Research Directorate General's Women and Science Unit, have carried out further work to develop this framework. The new framework will include a 4-tier scheme, for which definitions have been agreed but harmonisation of the coverage of

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these data remains to be determined. Until this framework is developed, it will not be possible to present any time series analysis from these data.

and the sex-composition of scientific boards to the WiS database on a goodwill basis. A complete list of the source institutions can be found at the end of this Annex.

Data sources
Data for ISCED 6 graduates have been obtained from Eurostat's online database NewCronos, except for Israel who provides data directly to the Women and Science Unit's WiS (Women in Science) database. The reference year is the calendar year in which the academic year began. Eurostat data represent the numbers of people who are studying in the reference country and not nationals who are studying abroad. For some countries (EL, IE, LU, PT, CY, IS, MT) large numbers also graduate from universities in other countries. Data on researchers have been obtained where possible from NewCronos but supplemented where necessary with data reported to the Women and Science Unit's WiS database. This data collection was initiated as part of a common project between Eurostat and the Women and Science Unit, with the support of the Helsinki Group on Women and Science. The statistical correspondents from the Helsinki Group have been involved in both the collection and validation of the data contained in the WiS database. For researchers in HES, the total figure has been estimated as the sum of the grades among academic staff for Belgium (French-speaking part), the United Kingdom and Israel. Data on R&D personnel by occupation are extracted from NewCronos. Data referring to labour force are drawn from the Community Labour Force Survey (CLFS) in different ways. The HRST data are part of a special extraction provided by Eurostat. Data on S&E employment have been derived from a recent Statistics in Focus publication1 and labour force data presented in Figures 1.9.a and 1.9.b are extracted from NewCronos. The data refer to all persons aged 15+ living in private households and include the employed, unemployed and inactive populations. The statistical correspondents of the Helsinki Group on Women and Science report data on academic staff (see Academic staff grades / Full Professors above), on the applicants and beneficiaries of research funding

Other data considerations
Small numbers For some countries with small populations, raw data relating to small numbers of people have been reported here. Percentages and other indicators that are calculated from these small figures have also been included. The reader is therefore asked to bear this in mind when interpreting the most disaggregated data, in particular for Luxembourg, Cyprus and Malta, and, in some cases, for Estonia, Iceland and Latvia. EU estimates EU totals provided in the text of "She Figures" are estimates based upon existing data, although data for adjacent years may have been used to complete any gaps. These estimates are not official, but are intended as a guide to the reader. Horizontal & vertical segregation In this publication, passing reference is made to the term segregation, which is a measure of the different distributions of the sexes across disciplines or sectors (horizontal segregation) and within hierarchical systems (vertical segregation). In practice, horizontal segregation can only be calculated by netting the vertical segregation out of overall segregation. It should therefore be noted that where the term horizontal segregation is used in the texts, it may in fact refer to overall segregation. Rounding Error In some cases, the row or column totals do not match the sum of the data. This may be due to rounding error. Country Codes Country names have been used in full where possible or abbreviated in accordance with the ISO Alpha-2 codes, with the exceptions of Greece and the United Kingdom, as follows:

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1

Strack, Guido (2003)

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Member States: BE Belgium BE-FL Dutch-speaking community in Belgium BE-FR French-speaking community in Belgium DK Denmark DE Germany EL Greece ES Spain Associated Countries: This term refers to countries that are associated to the Sixth EU Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development, 2002-2006 (FP6). BG Bulgaria Accession Countries: This term refers to countries that will become Member States of the European Union in 2004. CY Cyprus CZ Czech Republic EE Estonia Candidate Countries: This term refers to countries that are associated to the Sixth EU Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development, 20022006 (FP6). BG CY CZ Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic

FR IE IT LU NL AT PT FI SE UK CH CY CZ EE HU IS IL HU LV LT MT PL SK SI EE HU LV LT MT PL RO SK SI TR

France Ireland Italy Luxembourg The Netherlands Austria Portugal Finland Sweden United Kingdom Switzerland Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Hungary Latvia Lithuania Malta Poland Slovakia Slovenia Estonia Hungary Latvia Lithuania Malta Poland Romania Slovakia Slovenia Turkey

Academic Staff
The following lists the academic staff grades to which reference is made in Chapter 3. Under each country heading, the grade(s) corresponding to Grade A and to the sum of Grades B, C and D are presented. Dutch-speaking community in Belgium A ZAP1 - Gewoon/buitengewoon hoogleraar ZAP2 - Hoogleraar B-D ZAP3 - Hoofddocent ZAP4 - Docent AAP2 - Doctor-assistant Unpaid researchers (post-doctoral) WP3 - Post-doctoral of unlimited duration WP4 - Post-doctoral of limited duration AAP1 - Assistant AAP3 - Other AAP3 - Other Unpaid researchers (pre-doctoral) WP1 - Pre-doctoral of unlimited duration WP2 - Pre-doctoral of limited duration ZAP5 French-speaking community in Belgium A Professeur extraordinaire Professeur ordinaire B-D Professeur ChargÈ(e) de cours Denmark A Professor B-D Associate Professor Assistant Professor Senior/forskningsstip Scientific staff Temporary scientific staff Germany A C4 an allen Hochschularten B-D C3 an allen Hochschularten C2 auf Dauer an allen Hochschularten C2 auf Zeit an allen Hochschularten Ordentliche Professoren 1), HSL1-6, BAT I-IIa, AT Auúerordentliche Professoren 2) , HSL1-6, BAT I-IIa, AT Hochschuldozenten, R1, C2, C3, A9A15, BAT I-IIa, III, AT UniversitÄtsdozenten, H1-H3, BAT Ia, Ib, AT Oberassistenten, C2, H1, H2, A14, BAT Ia-IIa Oberingenieure, C2, H1, H2, A14, BAT Ib Hochschuldozenten 3), HSL 2-6, BAT I-IIa Auúerordentliche Hochschuldozenten 4), HSL 2-6, BAT I-IIa Oberassistenten 4), WM 3-6, BAT I-IIa Hochschulassistenten, C1, H2, BAT IaIIa Wissenschaftliche und kÝnstlerische

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Flags The following flags have been used, where necessary: ­ = data item not applicable 0 = real zero or < 0.5 of the unit : = data not available x = data included in another cell

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Assistenten, C1, H1, A13-A14, BAT Ib, IIa Akademische (Ober)RÄte -auf Zeit-, A13, A14 Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter im befristeten ArbeitsverhÄltnis 6), WM V, Va, BAT IIa Akademische RÄte, OberrÄte und Direktoren, A13-A16, C1-C3, R1, R2, H1-H3, BAT I-IIa, AT Wissenschaftl. und kÝnstl. Mitarbeiter im Angestelltenverh., BAT I-IVb, Va, AT, Verg. entspr. A13 ärzte im Praktikum, Tarif fÝr AIP Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter im unbefristeten ArbeitsverhÄltnis 7), WM 2-6, BAT I-IIa StudienrÄte, -direktoren im Hochschuldienst, A13-A16, BAT I-IIb Fachlehrer, Technische Lehrer, A9A13, AT Lektoren, A13-A14, BAT I-II, AT Sonstige LehrkrÄfte fÝr besondere Aufgaben, A9-A13, BAT I-Vc, Kr. VIIIXIII, AT Lektoren 8), WM 3, BAT IIa Lehrer im Hochschuldienst 9), WM 46, BAT IIa, IIb Greece A Professor B-D Associate Professor Assistant Professor Assistant staff, lecturer, post-graduate scholars, temporary teaching staff Spain A Full Professor B-D Associate Professor

Assistant Professor (The data split by level are only available from Universities with public entitlement) France A Directeur de recherche Professeur d'universitÈ B-D ChargÈ(e) de recherche MaÍtre de confÈrence Ireland A Professor B-D Associate Professor Statutory / senior lecturer (Full-time staff in HEA institutions only) Italy A Full Professor B-D Associate Professor Academic researcher Others The Netherlands A Professor B-D Associate Professor Assistant Professor Other academic staff Post-graduate (2-year post) Post-graduate (4-year post) Student assistant (Data relate to the Universities only)

Austria A Professor B-D UniversitÄtsdozent Assistent Sonst. Wissenschaft Personnel Wissenschaftliche HilfskrÄfte (Data relate to the Universities only) Portugal A Professor CatedrÀtico B-D Professor Associado Professor Auxiliar Assistente Finland A Professor (including former Associate Professors) B-D Lecturer Senior assistant Assistant Full-time teacher Researcher Sweden A Professor B-D Post-doctoral senior fellow Senior lecturer Junior lecturer United Kingdom A Professor B-D Senior lecturer

Senior researcher Lecturer Researcher Bulgaria A Professor B-D Associate Professor Assistant Lecturer Research associate Cyprus A Professor B-D Associate Assistant Lecturer Teaching Research

Professor Professor Support Staff associates and other staff

Czech Republic A Professor B-D Associate Professor Senior Assistant Assistant Lecturer Estonia A Professor B-D Associate Professor Assistant Professor Assistant Teacher Other (The data on academic staff cover universities and research centres

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within universities (most research institutes have been incorporated into universities).These data are represented in FTE and include both educational and R&D activities) Hungary A Professor (TanÀr) B-D Associate Professor (Docens) Senior Lecturer (Adjunktus) Lecturer (TanÀrsegÈd) Iceland A Professor B-D Associate Professor (Assistant Professor) Assistant Professor (Lecturer) Israel A Professor B-D Associate Professor Senior Lecturer Lecturer Latvia A Full Professor B-D Associate Professor Assistant Professor Assistant Lecturer Researcher Lithuania A Professor

B-D Associate Professor Other teaching Staff Malta A Professor B-D Associate Professor Senior Lecturer Norway A Full Professor B-D Associate Professor Assistant Professor Poland A Full Professor B-D Doctor Doctor hab. Professor of high school Slovakia A Professor B-D Docent Senior Lecturer Lector Lecturer Slovenia A Full Professor B-D Associate Professor Assistant Professor

Research Funds
The following list details each of the national funding bodies which have provided data for both applicants and beneficiaries of research funds, unless otherwise indicated. For the funding success rate, only those funds that have data available for both applicants and beneficiaries have been used in the calculation. Belgium Fund for scientific research Flanders (FWO) Funds for industrial research (IWT) Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique (FNRS) Denmark The Danish Research Council for the Humanities (SHF) The Danish Agricultural and Veterinary Research Council (SJVF) The Danish Natural Science Research Council SNF) The Danish Social Science Research Council (SSF) The Danish Medical Research Council (SSVF) The Danish Technical Research Council (STVF) Other funding bodies Germany Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) Greece Hellenic Public Foundation for Grants (IKY) Ireland Health Research Board Luxembourg Gouvernement Luxembourgeois Netherlands Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences council (KNAW) The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research Council Austria Bureau for International Research and Technology Co-operation programmes (BIT) Austrian Science Funds (FWF) Non-framework programmes Austrian Academy of Science (æAW) Portugal Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) Finland Academy of Finland

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Sweden Swedish Council for Forestry and Agricultural Research Swedish Council for Planning and Coordination of Research Swedish Council for Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences Swedish Medical Research Council Swedish Natural Science Research Council Swedish Research Council for Engineering Sciences United Kingdom Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) Medical Research Council (MRC) Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (PPARC) Cyprus Research Promotion Foundation (RPF) Czech Republic Academy of Science Grant Agency of Academy of Science Estonia Estonian Science Fund Hungary The Hungarian Scientific Research Fund Office (OTKA) Iceland Graduate Research Fund Programme for Information technology and Environmental Sciences The Christianity Millennium Fund The Research Fund of the UI The Science Fund The Technology fund Israel Bilateral (US-Israel) Science foundation Israel Science Foundation Latvia Latvian Council of Science Lithuania State scientific institutes Norway The Research Council of Norway (RCN) - Bioproduction and Processing The Research Council of Norway (RCN)-Culture and Society The Research Council of Norway (RCN)-Environment and Development The Research Council of Norway (RCN)-Industry and Energy

The Research Council of Norway (RCN)-Medicine and Health The Research Council of Norway (RCN)-Science and Technology Poland Government Slovakia VEGA ­ Scientific Grant Agency of Ministry of Education and Slovak Academy of Sciences (data of the SAS) Slovenia Ministry of Science and Technology

Scientific boards, academies and universities
Data from the following boards have been included in the figures, tables and annex tables results for scientific boards: Belgium Fund for scientific research Flanders Interuniversity Institute for Micro-Electronics Funds for industrial research Royal Academy of Flanders for Sciences and Arts Universities Commision ad hoc "recherche en Èducation" Commission scientifique FNRS Commission scientifique FRIA Commission scientifique FRSM Commission scientifique IISN Denmark Universities Analyseinstitut for Forskning Amternes og Kommunernes forskingsinstitut ArbejdsmiljÜinstituttet The Copenhagen Peace Research Institute Center for Sprogteknologi (Center of language technology) Council for Sciences and Technologies Center for udviklingsforskning Danish Cancer Society Dansk Bilharziose Laboratorium

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Danish school of pharmacy Danmarks FiskeriundersÜgelser Dansk Institut for Klinisk Epidemiologi Danmarks Jordbrugsforskning (replaces SHDF and SPAF from 2001) DLH Danmarks miljÜundersÜgelser Danmarks PÔdagogiske Universitet (replaces DLH from 2001) Danmarks og GrÜnlands Geologiske UndersÜgelser Dansk Rumforskningsinstitut Forskningscentret for Skov og Landskab Forskningscenter RISü GFF Institut for SundhedsvÔsen Institut for GrÔnseregionsforskning John F Kennedy instituttet Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters Statens Byggeforskningsinstitut Socialforskningsinstituttet Statens HusdyrbrugsforsÜg The Danish Research Councils Statens Jordbrugs- og FiskeriÜkonomiske Institut Statens PlanteavlsforsÜg Statens Skadedyrslaboratorium Germany Higher Education Institutions Non-university Research Institutions Greece Universities Alexander Fleming Greek Foundation Biomedical Sciences Research Centre "Alexander Fleming" (BSRC) Centre for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES) Centre for Research and Technology - Hellas (CERTH) Cultural and Educational Technology Institute (SETI) Foundation for Research and Technology (FORTH) Foundation of Biomedical Research / Academy of Athens Greek Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC) Hellenic Pasteur Institute Industrial Systems Institute (ISI) Institute for Language and Speech Processing (ILSP)

Institute of Communication and Computer Sciences Institute of Constitutional Research Institute of International Relations, Panteio University Institute of Marine Biology of Crete (IMBC) Ioannina Biomedical Research Institute (IBRI) National Centre for Scientific Research "Demokritos" (NCSR) National Centre for Social Research (NCRC) National Council for Research and Technology (ex National Advisory Research Council) National Hellenic Research Foundation (NHRF) National Technical University of Athens Institute for Deep Sea Research, Technology and Neutrino Astroparticle Physics Neurosurgical Institute Of University of Ioannina Research University Institute of Urban Environment and Human Resources Solid Earth Physics Institute TEI of Athens TEI of Chalkida TEI of Ipeiros TEI of Kalamata TEI of Larissa TEI of Serres TEI of Thessaloniki Telecommunication Systems Institute (TSI) - Technical University of Crete University Mental Health Research Institute University Research Institute of Applied Communication Spain CSIC, boards of directors National research council Oficina de Ciencia y Tecnologia Universities France Total (Presidents) Total board of trustees) (Members) Total scientific committees (Members) Total scientific strategic council (Members) Ireland Agriculture and Food Development Authority Agency to encourage the preservation and extension of the Irish language

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Bord Iascaigh Mhara Central and Regional Fisheries Board Central Bank Central Statistics Office COFORD (Forestry) Departments of Enterprise, Trade & Employment Dublin Institute of Advanced Education (DIAS) Enterprise Ireland Environmental Protection Agency Economic & Social Research Institute (dpt of Finance) Training and Employment Authority Food Safety Authority of Ireland Forfas Geological Survey (dpt of Public Enterprise) Higher Education Authority Health Research Board Industrial Development Authority Marine Institute National Museum National Roads Authority Departments of the Taoiseach Post Graduate Medical and Dental Board Radiological Protection Institute Royal Irish Academy of Science, Polite Literature and Antiquities Salmon Research Agency of Ireland Shannon Development Italy A. Dohrn Zoological Station Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Environment "E. Fermi" Historical Museum of the Physics and Center of Studies and Researches Excellence centers for university research Institute of International and Comparative Agrarian Law Italian National Statistical Institute Italian Space Agency Italian Association for Cancer Research Italian Aerospace Research Center Italian Center on Early Middle Ages Studies National research councils Tropical Herbarium of Florence National Institutes

Research Programmes of National Interest University boards Luxembourg Centre d'ètudes de Populations, de PauvretÈ et de Politiques Socio-Economiques Centre Universitaire de Luxembourg Fonds National de Recherche Institut SupÈrieur de Technologie Public Research Centres Netherlands Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences council The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research Council TNO Universities/ university board Austria Austrian Science Research Council Boards of the universities Boards of the universities of the arts Austrian Academy of Science Portugal Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) Institute for International Cooperation in Science, Technology and Higher Education (GRICES) Observatory for Science, Technology and Higher Education (OCES) Finland Academy Board Academy of Finland Research councils Science and Technology Policy Council of Finland Tekes Board Sweden Universities and Colleges Swedish Research Councils The Cancer Foundation United Kingdom Department of Culture, Media and Sport Department of Trade and Industry Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions Department for Education and Employment

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Department of Health Imperial Cancer Research Fund Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Ministry of Defense Northern Ireland Office Research Councils Research Career Awards Scottish Office Training and Career Development Board (studentships, fellowships and professorships) Royal Society of London Royal Academy of Engineering Universities Welsh Office Wellcome Trust Bulgaria Higher Education Sector Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Ministry of Education and Science National Center for Agricultural Sciences (The previous Academy of Agricultural Sciences) Cyprus Research Promotion Foundation University of Cyprus Czech Republic Academy Assembly ASCR Academy Council ASCR Estonia Estonian Academy of Sciences Estonian Science Fund Council Hungary The Hungarian Scientific Research Fund Office Iceland Advisory Boards of IRC Board of IRC Board of the Graduate Research Refund Board of the Research Fund of the UI University Councils Grant committee of the Science Fund Grant committee of the Technology Fund Institute of Freshwater Fisheries Research The Agricultural Research Institute

The Building Research Institute The Icelandic Fisheries Labaratories The Icelandic Forest Research Station The Marine Research Institute The National Energy Authority The Technological Institute Israel Bilateral (US-Israel) Science Foundation Latvia Expert commissions Norway The Research Council of Norway Poland Governmental bodies Higher education and research institutes Scientific societies and foundations Slovakia Higher Education Institutions Slovenia Council for Science and Technology National Scientific Research Council Scientific research councils for individual fields and the Technology development Council

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Theme 1: How many?
INDICATORS Percentage of graduates from ISCED level 5A, level 5B & level 6 programmes, by sex SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC MEANING Measures the distributions and concentrations of women and men as graduates from higher education Measures the presence, distributions and concentrations of women and men in research

SOURCE Eurostat (Education) and DG EAC Eurostat (R& D)

AVAILABILITY Available for 2001 Available for 1999-2001 Available for 1999-2001 Available for 2001 Available for 1999-2001 Not available

Percentage of Researchers by sex and institutional sector, FTE & HC Researchers per thousand labour force by sex and institutional sector Scientists and Engineers (ISCO '88 COM, codes 21 and 22) as a percentage of the labour force, by sex Compound Annual Growth Rate by sex, for HES & GOV(HC and FTE) RSEs (current target years 1998-2001) Ratio of ISCED 6 graduates in Year t to "Number of young researchers recruited in universities and public research centres", by sex, HES and GOV in Year t+ 1

Measures the R&D human resource intensity

Eurostat (CLFS & Benchmarking) Eurostat (CLFS)

Measures the S&E human resource intensity

Measures the progress of women at the highest level of R&D production and (indirectly) indicates overall impact of W&S activities. Measures the absorption of newly-qualified Ph.D. graduates into public research

Eurostat (R& D)

Eurostat (Education & Benchmarking)

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Theme 2: Horizontal Segregation
INDICATORS Percentage of graduates from ISCED level 5A , level 5B & level 6 programmes, by field of study and sex Feminisation ratio (FR) of researchers by institutional sector and by main field of science %age distribution of researchers within each main field of science by sex and institutional sector Index of Dissimilarity (ID) for researchers by institutional sector and by main field of science, ideally over a number of years HRSTE (successfully completed education at ISCED level 5 or 6 in a S&T field of study) as a percentage of total labour force by sex Gender segregation index (GSI) of researchers by field of science and by sector (HES and GOV) SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC MEANING Measures the concentrations of women and men as graduates from higher education and distributions by field of study Measures the incidence of female researchers against a benchmark of 100 male researchers Illustrates women's and men's presence across the fields of science and provides a basis for comparison. Expresses how far a country is from obtaining an equal gender distribution across all scientific disciplines (is an alternative to GSI). Numerator measures the educational attainment of men and women qualified in S&T in the labour force. Indicator measures S&T knowledge intensity Measures the concentration of men and women in specific fields. Measures how men and women tend to concentrate in specifically "masculine" and "feminine" fields respectively Measures whether the sexes may be polarised in terms of access to research funding and facilities SOURCE Eurostat (Education) and DG EAC Eurostat (R&D), AVAILABILITY Available for 2001 Available for 1999-2001 Available for 1999-2001 Available for 1999-2001 Available for 2002 Available for 1999-2001

Eurostat (R&D), WiS database Eurostat (R&D), WiS database Eurostat (HRST)

Eurostat (R&D), WiS database

108

Correlation between FR of RSEs and / or R&D personnel and GERD per capita RSE, for each institutional sector and overall

Eurostat (R&D), WiS database

Medium-term

Annex 6


Theme 3: Vertical Segregation
INDICATORS Ratio of A Grade academic staff: all grades academic staff by sex (initially in the HES, but ideally extended to the other institutional sectors) Percentage of R&D personnel by sex, occupation and institutional sector, FTE & HC Feminisation rate among the most senior research staff SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC MEANING Measures the difference between men and women as entrants and as top achievers in academic systems. Enables measurement of the presence, distributions and concentrations of women and men in research Measures the difference between men and women at the top of the academic scale SOURCE WiS database AVAILABILITY Available but work still required to improve comparability Available for 1999-2001 Available but work still required to improve comparability Available for 1999-2001 Medium-term Available but work still required to improve comparability Available but work still required to improve comparability Medium-term

Eurostat (R& D)

WiS database

Percentage distribution of R&D personnel by sector and sex Probability of being promoted to upper grades (by calculating survival curves) Distribution of academic staff throughout the grades, by sex Assesses any discrimination in selection procedures Measures the difference between men and women at each grade

Eurostat R&D Institutional administrative data WiS database

ID and / or GSI across the grades

Measures the presence and mobility of women in science

WiS database

109

RSEs and TECs by highest educational achievement and sex Number of scientific publications and most cited publications by sex

Will tell us whether women are being underused ­ and to what extent this compares with the utilisation of men. Measures gender patterns in scientific performance and output Currently, data NOT available by sex.

Long-term

Annex 6


Theme 4: Pay Gap
INDICATORS The GINI coefficient (G) SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC MEANING Measures the dissimilarity in salary by sex for different grades SOURCE SES micro data AVAILABILITY Medium-term

Theme 5: Fairness and success rate
INDICATORS Research funding success rates by sex SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC MEANING Measures the conversion rates of women and men to obtain grants for which they applied SOURCE WiS database AVAILABILITY
Available but work still required to improve comparability Available but work still required to improve comparability

Percentage of women among members of publicly-managed scientific boards

Reflects the gendering of scientific decisionmaking

WiS database

Gender Empowerment Measure for Science (GEMS) Percentage of employees/researchers on short-term contracts, by sex, in comparison to the overall number Success rate of applications for research posts by sex

Measures gender (in)equality in 3 key areas: political participation, economic participation, power over economic resources Tells us about job security across the sexes

UNDP HDR, Eurostat/OECD/ WiS Institutional administrative data Benchmarking data for successful recruits. No data for applicants at national level Currently, data NOT available by sex
Source: Eurostat/ EPO/USPTO

Medium-term

Long-term

Shows the equity of recruitment

Long-term

Percentage of EPO registered inventors who are women

110

Tells us something about the gender aspects of how ownership of scientific productivity is claimed.

Long-term

Sex composition of editorial boards and review panels

Tells us whether women are proportionately represented in terms of ability to judge the work of peer groups

Data from journals and periodicals

Long-term

Annex 6


Country (EU)
Austria

Statistical Correspondent
Dr. Karl MESSMANN

Department
Wissenschafts& Technologiestatistik Abteilung 6 SecrÈtaire gÈnÈrale Responsable pour les statistiques Afdeling Technologie & Innovatie

Organisation
Statistik æsterreich

Fax
+43.1.71128-7680

Email
Karl.Messmann @statistik.gv.at mjsimoen@fnrs.be kokkelkoren@fnrs.be

Belgium, French-speaking Community

Mme Marie-JosÈe SIMOEN
Mme E. KOKKELKOREN

F.N.R.S

+32.2.514.00.06

Dutch-speaking Community Germany Denmark

Ms. Lut BOLLEN

Ministry of Flemish Community Center of Excellence Women in Science The Danish Institute for Studies in Research and Research Policy Ministry of Information Technology and Research

+32.2.553.55.98

lut.bollen @wim.vlaanderen.be loether @cews.uni-bonn.de kl@afsk.au.dk

Ms. Andrea LæTHER Cand. Polit. Kamma LANGBERG PhD.

+49.228.73.48.40 +45 8942 2399

Ms. Karin Kjaer MADSEN

+45.3392.79.93

kkm@fsk.dk

Greece

Ms. Zografia KYMPERI

Programming & Planning Directorate Areo de Indicadores de Ciencia y TecnologÌa Science & Technology Statistics/Indicators

General Secretariat of Research and Technology Instituto Nacional de EstadÌstica Instituto Nacional de EstadÌstica

+301.771.14.27

ekyb@gsrt.gr

Spain

Mr. Antonio SALCEDO GALIANO Ms. Belen GONZALES OLMOS

+34.91.5839.376

asalcedo@ine.es

111

+34.91.583.93.76

bgolmos@ine.es

Annex 7


Country (EU)
France

Statistical Correspondent
Mme Dominique FRANCOZ

Department
Bureau des Ètudes statistiques sur la recherche

Organisation
MinistÕre de l'Education nationale, de la Recherche et de la Technologie Obsevatoire des Sciences et des techniques

Fax
+33.1.5555 7029

Email
dominique.francoz @education.gouv.fr

Mme Martine CARISEY Ireland Ms. Bernadette NULTY Dott.ssa Giuliana MATTEOCCI Policy and Planning, Science, Technology & Innovation Division Servizio Centrale/ Affari Generali/ sistema informativo e statistico ufficio V

+33.1.4548 6394

martine.carisey @obs-ost.fr bernadette.nulty @forfas.ie giuliana.matteocci @murst.it

Forfas

+353.1.607.32.60

Italy

Ministero UniversitÞ e Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica Ufficio MIUR-URST MinistÕre de la Culture, de l'Ens. SupÈrieur & de la Recherche Ministry of Education, Culture and Science

+39.06.584.96.465

Luxembourg

M. Robert KERGER

+352.460.927

robert.kerger @mcesr.etat.lu

Netherlands Portugal

Jan VAN STEEN Ms. Sandra PEREIRA R&D Statistics Department

+31.79.323.20.80 +351.21.395.09.79

j.c.g.vansteen @minocw.nl SPereira@oces.mces.pt

OCES Observatory for Science and Higher Education Academy of Finland

Finland

112

Ms. Jaana SALMENSIVU Ms. Karin Arvemo NOTSTRAND Mr. Glenn EVERETT Higher Education Statistics

+358.9.7748.8388 +46.19.17.70.82 +44.207.215.3293

jaana.salmensivu @aka.fi karin.arvemo @scb.se Glenn.Everett @dti.gsi.gov.uk

Sweden United Kingdom

Statistics Sweden Office of Science & Technology/DTI

Annex 7


Department
Unit 'Statistics on Services'

Organisation
National Institute of Statistics Office FÈdÈral de la statistique HSW

Fax
+359.29.857.24.88

Email
Rpetkova@NSI.bg elisabeth.pastor @bfs.admin.ch

Bulgaria Switzerland Czech Republic

Ms. Reny PETKOVA Mme Elisabeth PASTOR Ms. Miluse KOPACKOVA Mr. Aavo HEINLO Ms. Katalin JANAK Ms. Sigridur VILHJALMSDOTTIR Ms. Shirley KAHANOVICH Ms. Maranda BEHMANE Ms. Danguole ARESKIENE Ms. Catherine VELLA Ms. Susanne LEHMANN SUNDNES Dr. Maria ANTOSIK Mme Clementina IVAN UNGUREANU Ms. Marta MOSNA Ms. Metka MEDVESEKMILOSEVIC

Division of new technologies & non-market services statistics Education & Research Statistics Sector

Czech Statistical Office

+420.284.818.102

kopackova@gw.czso.cz

Estonia Hungary Iceland Israel Latvia Lithuania Malta Norway

Statistical Office of Estonia Hungarian Central Statistical Office Statistics Iceland Ministry of Science & Technology

+372.62.59.370 +36.1.345.6751 +354.528.11.99 +972.3.640.55.96 +371.783.01.37 +370.52.634.666 +35.624.98.41 +47.22.59.51.01

aavo.heinlo@stat.ee katalin.janak @ksh.gov.hu sigridur.vilhjalmsdottir @hagstofa.is shir193@post.tau.ac.il mbehmane@csb.lv Danguole.Areskiene @mail.std.lt catherine.vella @magnet.mt Susanne.Sundnes @nifu.no antosik@opi.org.pl ciu@insse.ro mosna @education.gov.sk Metka.MedvesekMilosevic@gov.si

Social Statistical Department Statistics Unit Library & Information Unit

Central Statistical Bureau Central Statistical Bureau of Lithuania National Statistics Office Norwegian Institute for Studies in Research & Higher Education Information Processing Centre Institutul national de Statistica

Poland Romania Slovakia

+48.22.825.33.19 +40.213.357.373 +421.2.6920.2203 +386.12.340.860

113

Division of Science & Technology

Ministry of Education Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia

Slovenia

Annex 7

Country (non EU)

Statistical Correspondent


REFERENCES
Blackburn R., Browne J., Brooks B. & Jarman J., (2002), "Explaining Gender Segregation" in The British Journal of Sociology, Volume 53, Number 4, (December 2002), pp. 513-536, ISSN: 0007-1315. Dunne M. (2003), "Education in Europe, Key Statistics 2000/2001" in Statistics in Focus, OPOCE, Luxembourg, Catalogue Number KSNK-03-013-EN-C, ISSN 1024-4352. European Commission, (1998), "One hundred words for equality A glossary of terms on equality between men and women", OPOCE, Luxembourg, 57pp. ISBN 92-828-2627-9. European Commission, (1999), "Women and Science, Proceedings of the Conference, Brussels, April 28-29 1998", OPOCE, Luxembourg, 217pp. ISBN 92-828-5752-2. European Commission, (2002), "Science and Society Action Plan (COM (2001) 714)", OPOCE, Luxembourg, 31pp. ISBN: 92-894-3025-7. European Commission, (2003), "Third European Report on Science & Technology Indicators ­Towards a Knowledge-based Economy" OPOCE, Luxembourg, 451pp. ISBN: 92-894-1795-1. Franco A. and BlÆndal L., (2003), "Labour Force Survey, Principal results 2002, Acceding countries" in Statistics in Focus, OPOCE, Luxembourg, Catalogue Number KS-NK-03-016-EN-C, ISSN 1024-4352. Franco A. & Jouhette S., (2003), "Labour Force Survey, Principal results 2002, EU and EFTA countries", in Statistics in Focus, OPOCE, Luxembourg, Catalogue Number KS-NK-03-015-EN-C, ISSN 1024-4352. ILO, (1990), "International standard classification of Occupations : OECD, (2002), "Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys on Research and Experimental Development" ­ Frascati Manual. OECD, Paris, 257pp. ISBN 92-64-19903-9. Osborn M. et al., (2002) "Science policies in the European Union: Promoting excellence through mainstreaming gender equality", OPOCE, Luxembourg, 157pp. ISBN 92-828-8682-4. Palomba R., (ed.), (2000), "Figlie di Minerva" Franco Angeli, Milano. Rees T., (2002), "National Policies on women and science in Europe", OPOCE, Luxembourg, 140pp. ISBN 92-894-3579-8. RÝbsamen-Waigmann H. et al., (2003), "Women in Industrial Research ­ A wake up call for European Industry", OPOCE, Luxembourg, 80pp. ISBN 92-894-4400-2. Strack G., (2003), "Towards a European Knowledge-based society: the contributions of men and women" in Statistics in Focus, OPOCE, Luxembourg, Catalogue Number KS-NS-03-005-EN-C, ISSN 1609-5995. UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization), (1997), "International Standard Classification of Education, ISCED 1997", UNESCO, Paris, 42pp. BPE-98/WS/1. WennerÅs C. and Wold A., (1997), "Nepotism and sexism in peer review", Nature, vol. 347, pp 341-3. Long, S. J., (ed.), (2001), "From Scarcity to Visibility", National Research Council, Washington. ISBN 0-309-05580-6. National Science Foundation, (2000), "Women, Minorities and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 2000". Arlington, VA, 2000 (NSF 00-327). OECD, (1994), "Manual of the measurement of human resources devoted to S&T" ­ Canberra Manual. OECD, Paris, 112pp.

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ISCO-88", International Labour Organization, Geneva, 467pp. ISBN 92-2-106438-7. Jakobsson J., (2002), "Mainstreaming Europe? ­ An Assessment of Gender Mainstreaming in the European Commission", University of Lund, Sweden.


European Commission EUR 20733 ­ She Figures 2003 ­ Women and Science Statistics and Indicators Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 2003 ­ 118 pp. ­ 14.8 x 21 cm ISBN 92-894-5812-7


Interested in European research? RTD info is our quarterly magazine keeping you in touch with main developments (results, programmes, events, etc.). It is available in English, French and German. A free sample copy or free subscription can be obtained from: European Commission Directorate-General for Research Information and Communication Unit B-1049 Brussels Fax (32-2) 29-58220 E-mail: research@cec.eu.int Internet: http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/rtdinfo/index_en.html

EUROPEAN COMMISSION Directorate-General for Research Directorate C ­ Science and Society Unit C.5 ­ Women and Science E-mail: RTD-SCIENCESOCIETY@cec.eu.int Contact: Nicole Dewandre European Commission Office SDME 06/79 B-1049 Brussels Tel. (32-2) 29-94925 Fax (32-2) 29-93746 E-mail: Nicole.Dewandre@cec.eu.int http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/science-society/women-science/women-science_en.html


15

At its inaugural meeting in 1999, the Helsinki Group on Women and Science identified the lack of internationally comparable statistics on women and science as a major obstacle to full and informed debate. As a result, a sub-group of statistical correspondents was formed which, in co-operation with the Research DG and Eurostat, has stimulated the mainstreaming of the sex variable into the European R&D surveys.

KI-KA-20-733-EN-C

It is clear from the ensuing data that women are not only under-represented in scientific research, but that they are distributed differently across disciplines and are less likely to be concentrated at the top of academic and research hierarchies. These phenomena are common to every participating European country. This publication explores the data to find other common patterns in the education, recruitment, promotion and participation of women as researchers and scientists.