... Optional: Quantum Physics . ... Energy Levels . ... Consider a proton inside the nucleus. ... Such nuclei, and heavy nuclei close to them in mass, are all on the brink of instability, and even without externally added energy, they find a way to get rid of some of their disruptive positive charge The forces on protons inside these nuclei resemble those on a bunch of marbles inside the "crater" of a volcano-shaped surface--smooth sloping sides outside, but a moderately deep crater on top ( drawing ). ...

... a positive central nucleus , where most of the atom's mass is concentrated, and . one or more negative electrons . Nucleus and electrons are held together by the electric attraction between positive (+) and negative (-) charges. ... When such processes occur in air, they produce there free ions and electrons, which can move and carry an electric current, something neutral atoms cannot do. ... The next heavier atom is that of helium (chemical symbol He) and it contains two electrons. ...

Jupiter is the largest of the nine planets, more than 10 times the diameter of Earth and more than 300 times its mass. ... The mean density of Earth is 5.245 times that of water. The pull of gravity on Jupiter at the top of the clouds at the equator is 2.4 times as great as gravity's pull at the surface of Earth at the equator. ... It is tipped about 11њ to Jupiter's axis of rotation, similar to Earth's, but it is also offset from the center of Jupiter by about 10,000 kilometers (6,200 miles). ...

Cosmic Research, Vol. 42, No. 5, 2004, pp. 435­488. Translated from Kosmicheskie Issledovaniya, Vol. 42, No. 5, 2004, pp. 453­508. Original Russian Text Copyright © 2004 by Veselovsky, Panasyuk, Avdyushin, Bazilevskaya, Belov, Bogachev, Bogod, Bogomolov, Bothmer, Boyarchuk, Vashenyuk, Vlasov, Gnezdilov, Gorgutsa, Grechnev, Denisov, Dmitriev, Dryer, Yermolaev, Eroshenko, Zherebtsov, Zhitnik, Zhukov, Zastenker, Zelenyi, Zeldovich, Ivanov-Kholodnyi, Ignat'ev, Ishkov, Kolomiytsev, Krasheninnikov, Kudela,