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461. Selecting the backup medium
... Backups . ... The most important decision regarding backups is the choice of backup medium. ... Cost is important, since you should preferably have several times more backup storage than what you need for the data. A cheap medium is usually a must. ... A hard disk is typically very reliable, but as a backup medium it is not very reliable, if it is in the same computer as the disk you are backing up. ... A backup medium mustn't be hard or boring to use. ... Selecting the backup tool ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2206.html -- 4.8 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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462. Selecting the backup tool
... Backups . ... There are many tools that can be used to make backups. The traditional UNIX tools used for backups are tar , cpio , and dump . ... Some UNIX versions of tar and cpio may have problems with unusual files (symbolic links, device files, files with very long pathnames, and so on), but the Linux versions should handle all files correctly. dump is different in that it reads the filesystem directly and not via the filesystem. ... Selecting the backup medium . ... Simple backups ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2216.html -- 4.9 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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463. Simple backups
... Backups . ... The first backup is called a full backup , the subsequent ones are incremental backups . ... An incremental backup can be done with tar using the --newer ( -N ) option: # tar --create --newer '8 Sep 1995' --file /dev/ftape / usr / src --verbose tar : Removing leading / from absolute path names in the archive usr / src / usr / src / linux-1.2.10-includes / usr / src / linux-1.2.10-includes / include / usr / src / linux-1.2.10-includes / include / linux / usr / src / ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2240.html -- 10.1 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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464. Multilevel backups
... Backups . ... The simple backup method outlined in the previous section is often quite adequate for personal use or small sites. For more heavy duty use, multilevel backups are more appropriate. The simple method has two backup levels: full and incremental backups. ... A full backup would be level 0, and the different levels of incremental backups levels 1, 2, 3, etc. ... Figure 10-1 shows which backup level is used each day, and which backups can be restored from at the end of the month. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2315.html -- 8.5 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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465. What to back up
... Backups . ... The major exception is software that can be easily reinstalled, [1] but even they may have configuration files that it is important to back up, lest you need to do all the work to configure them all over again. Another major exception is the /proc filesystem; since that only contains data that the kernel always generates automatically, it is never a good idea to back it up. ... You must decide what you consider important. ... You get to decide what's easy. ... Multilevel backups . ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2405.html -- 4.0 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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466. Compressed backups
... Some programs have support for for compression built in; for example, the --gzip ( -z ) option for GNU tar pipes the whole backup through the gzip compression program, before writing it to the backup medium. ... This means that if the backup is compressed the way GNU tar does it, with the whole output compressed as a unit, a single error makes all the rest of the backup lost. ... Compression takes some time, which may make the backup program unable to write data fast enough for a tape drive. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2417.html -- 4.8 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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467. The hardware and software clocks
The Linux System Administrators' Guide . ... Keeping Time . ... A personal computer has a battery driven hardware clock. ... The Linux kernel keeps track of time independently from the hardware clock. ... The kernel clock always shows universal time. ... The hardware clock can be in local time or in universal time. ... Linux can handle either, but if the hardware clock shows local time, then it must be modified when daylight savings time begins or ends (otherwise it wouldn't show local time). ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2451.html -- 4.1 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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468. Showing and setting time
... Keeping Time . ... The date command shows the current date and time. 1] For example: $ date Sun Jul 14 21:53:41 EET DST 1996 $ That time is Sunday, 14th of July, 1996 , at about ten before ten at the evening, in the time zone called ``EET DST'' (which might be East European Daylight Savings Time ). date can also show the univeral time : $ date -u Sun Jul 14 18:53:42 UTC 1996 Sun Jul 14 18:53:42 UTC 1996 $ date is also used to set the kernel's software clock : # ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2457.html -- 6.4 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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469. When the clock is wrong
... Keeping Time . ... The Linux software clock is not always accurate. It is kept running by a periodic timer interrupt generated by PC hardware. ... If you boot your computer often (as is the case for most systems that aren't servers), it will usually keep fairly accurate time. ... If the other computer is known to keep very accurate time, then both computers will keep accurate time. ... By running one these commands regularly, your computer will keep as accurate time as the remote computer. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2504.html -- 4.3 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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470. Logging In And Out
... Logins via terminals . Logins via the network . What login does . ... First, init makes sure there is a getty program for the terminal connection (or console). getty listens at the terminal and waits for the user to notify that he is ready to login in (this usually means that the user must type something). ... Note that the only new process is the one created by init (using the fork system call); getty and login only replace the program running in the process (using the exec system call). ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/c1905.html -- 6.0 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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471. Managing user accounts
... What's an account? Creating a user . ... When a computer is used by many people it is usually necessary to differentiate between the users, for example, so that their private files can be kept private. ... An account is all the files, resources, and information belonging to one user. The term hints at banks, and in a commercial system each account usually has some money attached to it, and that money vanishes at different speeds depending on how much the user stresses the system. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/c2018.html -- 4.6 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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472. Configuring init to start getty: the /etc/inittab file
... Chapter 7. init . ... When it starts up, init reads the /etc/inittab configuration file. ... The /etc/inittab file is a bit complicated. We'll start with the simple case of configuring getty lines. ... For getty lines, it specifies the terminal it runs on (the characters after /dev/tty in the device file name). ... What action should be taken by the line, e.g., respawn to run the command in the next field again, when it exits, or once to run it just once. process . The command to run. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1752.html -- 6.8 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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473. Run levels
The Linux System Administrators' Guide . ... A run level is a state of init and the whole system that defines what system services are operating. ... Run levels are configured in /etc/inittab by lines like the following: l2:2:wait:/etc/init.d/rc 2 The first field is an arbitrary label, the second one means that this applies for run level 2. The third field means that init should run the command in the fourth field once, when the run level is entered, and that init should wait for it to complete. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1812.html -- 5.9 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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474. Special configuration in /etc/inittab
The Linux System Administrators' Guide . ... Chapter 7. init . ... The /etc/inittab has some special features that allow init to react to special circumstances. These special features are marked by special keywords in the third field. ... Allows init to shut the system down, when the power fails. ... Allows init to reboot the system, when the user presses ctrl-alt-del on the console keyboard. ... Command to be run when the system is booted. This command usually cleans up /tmp , for example. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1852.html -- 4.1 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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475. Booting in single user mode
The Linux System Administrators' Guide . ... An important run level is single user mode (run level 1), in which only the system administrator is using the machine and as few system services, including logins, as possible are running. ... Booting into single user mode is sometimes necessary so that one can run fsck by hand, before anything mounts or otherwise touches a broken /usr partition (any activity on a broken filesystem is likely to break it more, so fsck should be run as soon as possible). ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1880.html -- 5.3 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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476. Logins via the network
... Two computers in the same network are usually linked via a single physical cable. When they communicate over the network, the programs in each computer that take part in the communication are linked via a virtual connection , a sort of imaginary cable. ... When it notices an incoming network login (i.e., it notices that it gets a new virtual connection to some other computer), it starts a new process to handle that single login. ... What login does ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1944.html -- 5.3 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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477. What login does
... Next . The login program takes care of authenticating the user (making sure that the username and password match), and of setting up an initial environment for the user by setting permissions for the serial line and starting the shell. Part of the initial setup is outputting the contents of the file /etc/motd (short for message of the day) and checking for electronic mail. These can be disabled by creating a file called .hushlogin in the user's home directory. ... Logins via the network . ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1956.html -- 5.2 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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478. X and xdm
. The Linux System Administrators' Guide . Prev . Chapter 8. Logging In And Out . Next . XXX X implements logins via xdm; also: xterm -ls . Prev . Home . Next . What login does . Up . Access control
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1988.html -- 2.7 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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479. Access control
... The user database is traditionally contained in the /etc/passwd file. Some systems use shadow passwords , and have moved the passwords to /etc/shadow . ... This does have the drawback that anyone with access to the encrypted password can use various cryptographical methods to guess it, without trying to actually log into the computer. ... The user group database is kept in /etc/group ; for systems with shadow passwords, there can be a /etc/shadow.group . ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1991.html -- 4.9 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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480. Shell startup
... When an interactive login shell starts, it automatically executes one or more pre-defined files. ... Most shells first run some global file, for example, the Bourne shell ( /bin/sh ) and its derivatives execute /etc/profile ; in addition, they execute .profile in the user's home directory. /etc/profile allows the system administrator to have set up a common user environment, especially by setting the PATH to include local command directories in addition to the normal ones. ... Managing user accounts...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2008.html -- 3.6 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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