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481. Creating a user
... Managing user accounts . ... To create a user, you need to add information about the user to the user database, and create a home directory for him. ... The basic user database in a Unix system is the text file, /etc/passwd (called the password file ), which lists all valid usernames and their associated information. ... When the home directory for a new user is created, it is initialized with files from the /etc/skel directory. ... Create the home directory of the user with mkdir . ... Surreal...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2031.html -- 10.8 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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482. Changing user properties
... Managing user accounts . ... There are a few commands for changing various properties of an account (i.e., the relevant field in /etc/passwd ): . ... Change the full name field. chsh . ... The super-user may use these commands to change the properties of any account. Normal users can only change the properties of their own account. ... Other tasks need to be done by hand. ... The user's name might change due to marriage, for example, and he might want to have his username reflect his new name.} ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x2124.html -- 4.4 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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483. Memory Management
The Linux System Administrators' Guide . ... Creating a swap space . ... This section describes the Linux memory management features, i.e., virtual memory and the disk buffer cache. ... This is all made completely transparent to the user; programs running under Linux only see the larger amount of memory available and don't notice that parts of them reside on the disk from time to time. ... Linux can use either a normal file in the filesystem or a separate partition for swap space. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/c1450.html -- 6.0 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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484. Boots And Shutdowns
The Linux System Administrators' Guide . ... An overview of boots and shutdowns . ... Never, never never stop . ... The act of turning on a computer system and causing its operating system to be loaded [1] is called booting . ... During bootstrapping, the computer first loads a small piece of code called the bootstrap loader , which in turn loads and starts the operating system. ... For PC's, the computer (its BIOS) reads in the first sector (called the boot sector ) of a floppy or hard disk. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/c1582.html -- 6.2 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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485. init
... Run levels . ... This chapter describes the init process, which is the first user level process started by the kernel. init has many important duties, such as starting getty (so that users can log in), implementing run levels, and taking care of orphaned processes. This chapter explains how init is configured and how you can make use of the different run levels. init is one of those programs that are absolutely essential to the operation of a Linux system, but that you still can mostly ignore. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/c1705.html -- 7.1 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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486. Allocating disk space
The Linux System Administrators' Guide . ... It is not easy to partition a disk in the best possible way. ... The traditional way is to have a (relatively) small root filesystem, which contains /bin , /etc , /dev , /lib , /tmp , and other stuff that is needed to get the system up and running. ... Separating the home directories (with the users' files) in their own partition makes backups easier, since it is usually not necessary to backup programs (which reside below /usr ). ... root filesystem . ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1384.html -- 11.0 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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487. Creating a swap space
... A swap file is an ordinary file; it is in no way special to the kernel. The only thing that matters to the kernel is that it has no holes, and that it is prepared for use with mkswap . ... A swap partition is also not special in any way. ... The command to do this is \cmd{mkswap}, used like this: $ mkswap /extra-swap 1024 Setting up swapspace, size = 1044480 bytes $ Note that the swap space is still not in use yet: it exists, but the kernel does not use it to provide virtual memory. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1466.html -- 6.2 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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488. Using a swap space
... An initialized swap space is taken into use with swapon . ... It will tell the total amount of swap space used. $ free total used free shared buffers Mem: 15152 14896 256 12404 2528 -/+ buffers: 12368 2784 Swap: 32452 6684 25768 $ The first line of output ( Mem: ) shows the physical memory. The total column does not show the physical memory used by the kernel, which is usually about a megabyte. ... Sometimes a lot of swap space can be in use even though there is a lot of free physical memory. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1495.html -- 6.5 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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489. Sharing swap spaces with other operating systems
The Linux System Administrators' Guide . Prev . ... Memory Management . Next . Virtual memory is built into many operating systems. Since they each need it only when they are running, i.e., never at the same time, the swap spaces of all but the currently running one are being wasted. It would be more efficient for them to share a single swap space. ... Using a swap space . ... Allocating swap space ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1529.html -- 3.1 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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490. Allocating swap space
... Memory Management . ... Some people will tell you that you should allocate twice as much swap space as you have physical memory, but this is a bogus rule. ... This is the largest amount of memory you'll probably need at a time, that is the sum of the memory requirements of all the programs you want to run at the same time. ... So, in order to allocate swap space, you just need to subtract the size of your physical memory from the total memory needed, and you know how much swap space you need. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1532.html -- 6.3 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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491. The buffer cache
... Memory Management . ... This is called disk buffering , and the memory used for the purpose is called the buffer cache . Since memory is, unfortunately, a finite, nay, scarce resource, the buffer cache usually cannot be big enough (it can't hold all the data one ever wants to use). ... On the one hand, data that is written is often soon read again (e.g., a source code file is saved to a file, then read by the compiler), so putting data that is written in the cache is a good idea. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1551.html -- 7.9 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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492. The boot process in closer look
... You can boot Linux either from a floppy or from the hard disk. ... When booting Linux from a floppy disk, the boot sector contains code that just reads the first few hundred blocks (depending on the actual kernel size, of course) to a predetermined place in memory. On a Linux boot floppy, there is no filesystem, the kernel is just stored in consecutive sectors, since this simplifies the boot process. ... For example, when I boot, I it looks like this: LILO boot: Loading linux. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1602.html -- 10.3 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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493. More about shutdowns
... Boots And Shutdowns . ... Another reason against just flipping the power switch is that in a multi-tasking system there can be lots of things going on in the background, and shutting the power can be quite disastrous. ... Alternatively, if your system has many users, use the command shutdown -h +time message , where time is the time in minutes until the system is halted, and message is a short explanation of why the system is shutting down. # shutdown -h +10 'We will install a new disk. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1650.html -- 7.6 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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494. Rebooting
The Linux System Administrators' Guide . Prev . ... Boots And Shutdowns . Next . Rebooting means booting the system again. ... A simpler way is to ask shutdown to reboot the system, instead of merely halting it. ... Most Linux systems run shutdown -r now when ctrl-alt-del is pressed on the keyboard. This reboots the system. The action on ctrl-alt-del is configurable, however, and it might be better to allow for some delay before the reboot on a multiuser machine. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1684.html -- 3.5 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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495. Single user mode
. The Linux System Administrators' Guide . Prev . Chapter 6. Boots And Shutdowns . Next . The shutdown command can also be used to bring the system down to single user mode, in which no one can log in, but root can use the console. This is useful for system administration tasks that can't be done while the system is running normally. Prev . Home . Next . Rebooting . Up . Emergency boot floppies
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1693.html -- 2.9 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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496. Emergency boot floppies
... It is not always possible to boot a computer from the hard disk. ... For typical PC's, this means booting from the floppy drive. Most Linux distributions allow one to create an emergency boot floppy during installation. ... You must, of course, remember to keep your emergency boot and root floppies up to date. ... However, if you have enough memory, you can configure your boot floppy to load the root disk to a ramdisk (the boot floppy's kernel needs to be specially configured for this). ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1697.html -- 4.2 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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497. Using Disks and Other Storage Media
... Two kinds of devices . Hard disks . ... Disks without filesystems . ... You have to make filesystems on your disks so that files can be stored on them and reserve space for the different parts of your system. ... In fact, one seldom needs to worry about device files at all. ... Having all the device files makes the installation programs simpler, and makes it easier to add new hardware (there is no need to find out the correct parameters for and create the device files for the new device). ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/c701.html -- 8.1 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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498. Filesystems
... A filesystem is the methods and data structures that an operating system uses to keep track of files on a disk or partition; that is, the way the files are organized on the disk. ... Thus, one might say ``I have two filesystems'' meaning one has two partitions on which one stores files, or that one is using the ``extended filesystem'', meaning the type of the filesystem. ... Before one can use a filesystem, it has to be mounted . ... If the root filesystem can't be mounted, the system does not boot....
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1029.html -- 40.0 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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499. Disks without filesystems
... Using Disks and Other Storage Media . ... Many floppies are used in a tape-drive emulating fashion, so that a tar or other file is written directly on the raw disk, without a filesystem. ... One way to do this is to use dd : $ dd if=/dev/fd0H1440 of=floppy-image 2880+0 records in 2880+0 records out $ dd if=floppy-image of=/dev/fd0H1440 2880+0 records in 2880+0 records out $ The first dd makes an exact image of the floppy to the file floppy-image , the second one writes the image to the floppy. ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x1366.html -- 4.6 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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500. The /usr filesystem
... The /usr filesystem is often large, since all programs are installed there. All files in /usr usually come from a Linux distribution; locally installed programs and other stuff goes below /usr/local . ... usr/sbin . System administration commands that are not needed on the root filesystem, e.g., most server programs. /usr/man , /usr/info , /usr/doc . ... This should actually be below /usr/lib for consistency, but the tradition is overwhelmingly in support for this name. /usr/lib . ...
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Ссылки http://itpm.msu.su/LDP/sag-0.6.1.html/x472.html -- 5.3 Кб -- 18.04.1999
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